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Constitution of the United States

supreme law of the United States of America since March 4th, 1789
(Redirected from US Constitution)
"US Constitution" redirects here. For the ship, see USS Constitution.

The United States Constitution is the highest law of the United States of America. It was signed on September 17, 1787 by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Later, it was put into effect, or ratified, by representatives of the people of the first 13 states.[1] When nine of the states ratified the document, they created a union of sovereign states, and a federal government for that union. That government started on March 4, 1789, which took the place of the Articles of Confederation.

The Constitution of the United States is the oldest federal constitution now in use.[2] Of all the countries in the world, only San Marino's constitution is in part older, from 1600. Some countries also have an "uncodified" constitution containing older documents, such as the United Kingdom, and also Saudi Arabia, which claims the Quran as its constitution.

Since 1787, changes have been made to the United States Constitution 27 times by amendments (changes). The first ten of these amendments are together called the Bill of Rights and came into effect in 1791. The most recent, the 27th amendment, came into effect in 1992, although it was proposed already in 1789. Making an amendment is very difficult, and demands a two-thirds majority vote in US Congress and ratification (agreement) by three-fourths of all 50 states. However, the Supreme Court has changed its interpretation of the constitution, which in effect changes what the text means and how it affects other laws, more often than actual amendments.

Articles of the Constitution

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When it was signed in 1787, the Constitution had a preamble and seven main parts, called articles.

Preamble

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The Preamble states:

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

The Preamble is not a law. It gives the reasons for writing the Constitution. The Preamble is one of the best-known parts of the Constitution. The first three words, "We the People", are used very often. The six intentions that are listed are the goals of the Constitution.

Legislative power

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Article One says that the United States Congress (the legislative branch) will make the laws for the United States. Congress has two parts, called "Houses": the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. This Article says who can be elected to each part of Congress, and how they are elected.

The House of Representatives has members elected by the people in each State. The number of members from each State depends on how many people live there. Each member of the House of Representatives is elected for two years.

The Senate has two members, called the legislators, from each state, no matter how many people live there. Each Senator is elected for six years. The original Constitution allowed the state legislatures to choose the Senators, but this was changed later by the Seventeenth Amendment.

Article One also says how the Congress will do its business and what kinds of laws it can make. It lists some kinds of laws the Congress and the states cannot make.

Article One also makes rules for Congress to impeach and remove from office the President, Vice President, judges, and other government officers.

Executive power

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Article Two says that the President, Vice President, and executive offices (the executive branch) will carry out the laws made by Congress. This article says how the President and Vice President are elected, and who can be elected to these offices. The President and Vice President are elected for four years by a special Electoral College chosen by the states. The Vice President takes over as President if the President dies, resigns, or is unable to serve.

Article Two also says that the President is the Commander-in-Chief in charge of the United States military. He can make treaties with other countries, but these must be approved by two-thirds of the Senate. He appoints judges, ambassadors, and other officers, but the Senate also must approve these appointments. The President can also veto bills. However, Congress can override the veto and make the bill into a law anyway.

Judicial power

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Article Three says there will be a court system (the judicial branch), which includes the Supreme Court. The Article says that Congress can decide which federal courts, besides the Supreme Court, are needed.

Article Three says what kinds of "cases and controversies" these courts can decide. It also requires trial by jury in all criminal cases, and defines the crime of treason.

States' powers and limits

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Article Four is about the states. It says that all states must give "full faith and credit" to the laws of the other states. It also says that state governments must treat citizens of other states as fairly as they treat their own citizens, and must send arrested people back if they have been charged with a crime in another state and fled.

Article Four also says that Congress can make new states. There were only 13 states in 1787. Now there are 50 United States. It says Congress can make rules for Federal property and can govern territories that have not yet been made into states. Article Four says the United States must make sure that each state has a republican form of government, and protect the states from invasion and violence.

Process of amendment

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Article Five gives two ways to amend, or change, the Constitution.

  1. Congress can write a change, if two-thirds of the members in each House agree.
  2. The state governments can call a convention to write changes, although this has not happened since 1787.

Any change that is written by Congress or by a convention must be sent to the state legislatures or to state conventions for their approval. Congress decides whether to send a change to the legislatures or to conventions. Three-fourths of the states must approve a change for it to become part of the Constitution.

An amendment can change any part of the Constitution, except one—no amendment can change the rule that each state has an equal number of Senators in the United States Senate.

Federal power

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Article Six says that the Constitution, and the laws and treaties of the United States, are higher than any other laws. It also says that all federal and state officers must swear to "support" the Constitution.

Ratification

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Article Seven says that the new government under the Constitution would not start conventions until at least nine states approved the Constitution.


Amendments

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Since 1787, Congress has written 33 amendments to change the Constitution, but the states have ratified only 27 of them. now here is a purposed second constitution to the United States of America that was submitted to Harvard university for publication by a 16 year old author Brayden lee Jacobs

The Patriot’s Constitution

(Preamble - Retained)

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."

Article I: The Legislative Branch

  • (Section 1 - Retained) "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives."
  • (Section 2 - Modified)
 * (Retained) "The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen."

 * (Added) "Term limits are hereby established, limiting a person to a cumulative total of twelve years in the House of Representatives."
  • (Section 3 - Modified)

   *  "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen."

   * (Added) "Term limits are hereby established, limiting a person to a cumulative total of twelve years in the Senate."

  • (Section 4 - Retained) "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day."
  • (Section 5 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member."

   * (Added) "Congress shall enact laws enforcing strict campaign finance limits, and providing an optional system of public campaign funding."

  • (Section 6 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place."

   * (Added) "A mandatory 'cooling-off' period of five years is established before former members of Congress can engage in lobbying activities."

  • (Section 7 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law."

   * (Added) "A three-fifths supermajority vote is required for all legislation that significantly impacts the federal budget or alters existing social programs. The President shall have line item veto power, subject to congressional override. Mandatory sunset clauses will be added to all new laws. Congress spending shall be limited to a percentage of the GDP, and the percentage shall be set by law."

  • (Section 8 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States; To establish Post Offices and post Roads; To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; To provide and maintain a Navy; To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces; To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; And To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof."

   * (Added) "Any federal mandate placed upon the states must be fully funded by the federal government. Congress shall define the process of declaring war, and strictly limit the president's ability to deploy troops without congressional approval."

Article I  Legislative Branch

Section 9 Powers Denied Congress

Clause 1 Migration or Importation

The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

Clause 4 Direct Taxes

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

Clause 6 Ports

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

Clause 7 Appropriations

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

Clause 8 Titles of Nobility and Foreign Emoluments

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

Section 10 Powers Denied States

Clause 1 Proscribed Powers

No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

Clause 2 Import-Export

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

* (Section 1 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of six Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:"

   * (Added) "The President shall be limited to a single six-year term. The President's emergency powers shall be defined and limited, requiring immediate Congressional oversight and approval. An independent Inspector General with subpoena power is established to investigate all executive branch activities."

* (Section 2, 3, 4 - Retained) Full original sections.

Article III: The Judicial Branch

* (Section 1 - Retained) "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish."

* (Section 2 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State and Citizens of another State;—between Citizens of different States;—between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects."

   *

Article III: The Judicial Branch

* (Section 2 - Modified, ) "Supreme Court Justices shall serve 18-year terms, with staggered appointments. A mandatory judicial code of ethics is established. Judges of lower courts shall be appointed based on merit. The Supreme Court's jurisdiction may be limited by a supermajority vote of congress."

* (Section 3 - Retained) "Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted."

Article IV: States and Federalism

* (Section 1 - Retained) "Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof."

* (Section 2 - Retained) "The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due."

* (Section 3 - Retained) "New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State."

* (Section 4 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence."

   * (Added) "State sovereignty is explicitly affirmed."

Article V: Amendments

* (Modified) "The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate."

   * (Modified) "Ratification will require a vote of three fourths of the population of the united states in a national referendum."

Article VI: Religion and Values

* (Section 1 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation."

   * (Added) "The United States acknowledges the historical and cultural significance of the Christian faith. The United States is a Christian Nation."

* (Section 2 - Modified)

   * (Retained) "This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding."

   * (Added) "No religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. The right to practice any religion, or no religion, is hereby protected."

* (Section 3 - New) "The United States affirms the importance of Christian values in public life, including the protection of the unborn and the definition of marriage as between one man and one woman."

Article VII: Ratification

* (Modified) "The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same."

   * (Modified) "This Constitution will be ratified by a vote of three fourths of the population of the united states in a national referendum."

Bill of Rights (Retained and Expanded)

* Retains all original amendments.

* Adds the following as amendments:

   * Child Labor Prohibition: Expressly prohibits child labor.

   * Equal Rights Amendment: Guarantees equal rights regardless of sex.

   * FDR's Second Bill of Rights (Amendments):

     * Right to employment.

     * Right to food, clothing, and recreation.

     * Right of farmers to fair returns.

     * Right of businesses to fair trade.

     * Right to housing.

     * Right to medical care.

     * Right to social security.

     * Right to education.

   * Direct Election of the President: Abolishes the Electoral College, replacing it with a national popular vote.

   * Congressional Term Limits Enforcement: Gives the Supreme Court original jurisdiction to enforce congressional term limits.

   * Balanced Budget Amendment: Requires a balanced federal budget except in times of declared war or national emergency.

   * Supreme Court Jurisdiction Limitation: Allows Congress to limit the Supreme Court's jurisdiction by a supermajority vote.

   * Congressional Spending Limitation: Limits federal spending to a fixed percentage of GDP, as determined by law.

   * War Powers Limitation: Clearly defines the process for declaring war and strictly limits the President's ability to deploy troops without congressional approval.

   * Recall of Federal Officials: Allows for the recall of federal officials, including members of Congress and the President, through a national referendum.

   * Environmental Rights: Guarantees the right to clean air and water.

   * Technological Amendments:

     * Data Privacy: Protects citizens' data from unreasonable collection and use.

     * Artificial Intelligence: Establishes guidelines and regulations for the development and use of AI.

     * Cybersecurity: Ensures the protection of critical infrastructure and personal data from cyber threats.

  Bill of Rights (Retained and Expanded - Continued)

* Environmental Rights: Guarantees the right to clean air and water.

* Technological Amendments:

   * Data Privacy: Protects citizens' data from unreasonable collection and use.

   * Artificial Intelligence: Establishes guidelines and regulations for the development and use of AI.

   * Cybersecurity: Ensures the protection of critical infrastructure and personal data from cyber threats.

* A amendment that gives the people the ability to propose laws to congress, and if congress does not pass the proposed law, then it will go to a national vote.

Article VIII: Implementation and Transition

* Section 1: Effective Date: This Constitution shall take effect on the first day of January following its ratification.

* Section 2: Transition Provisions:

   * All existing federal laws and treaties shall remain in effect unless explicitly repealed or amended by the Congress established under this Constitution.

   * The terms of current members of Congress and the President shall continue until their natural expiration, at which point the provisions of this Constitution shall take effect. The first presidential election under the new constitution shall be held on the next scheduled presidential election.

   * All judicial appointments made prior to the effective date of this Constitution shall remain in effect, subject to the term limits established herein.

   * All people born within the united states, or born to a citizen of the united states, are citizens of the united states.

* Section 3: Severability: If any provision of this Constitution is held to be invalid, the remaining provisions shall not be affected.

* Section 4: Continuity of Government: In the event of a national emergency or catastrophic event, the Congress shall have the power to enact temporary measures to ensure the continuity of government.

Article IX: Interpretation

* Section 1: Original Intent: In interpreting the provisions of this Constitution, the courts shall give due regard to the original intent of the framers and the understanding of the people at the time of its ratification.

* Section 2: Rule of Law: The rule of law shall prevail, and all persons shall be equal before the law.

Article X: Final Provision

* Section 1: Supremacy of the People: All power is inherent in the people, and all government derives its just powers from the consent of the governed.

Bill of Rights

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The first ten amendments are called the Bill of Rights. They were argued over during the Constitutional Convention of 1787, but it was not until 1791 that they were ratified by two-thirds of the states.[3] These ten additions or changes all limited the power of the federal government. They are:

Number Year Description
1st 1791 Congress must protect the rights of freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of petition. Congress cannot create a national religion.
2nd 1791 "A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed." - People have the right to keep and carry weapons, such as guns.
3rd 1791 The government cannot send soldiers to live in private homes without the permission of the owners.
4th 1791 The government cannot get a warrant to arrest a person or search their property unless there is "probable cause" to believe a crime has been committed.
5th 1791 The government cannot put a person on trial for a serious crime until a grand jury has written an indictment. If a person is found not guilty in a trial, they cannot be put on trial again for the same crime. The government must follow due process of law before punishing a person or taking their property. A person on trial for a crime does not have to testify against himself in court.
6th 1791 Any person who is accused of a crime should get a speedy trial by a jury. That person can have a lawyer during the trial. They must be told what they are charged with. The person can question the witnesses against them, and can get their own witnesses to testify.
7th 1791 A jury trial is needed for civil cases.
8th 1791 The government cannot require excessive bail or fines, or any cruel and unusual punishment.
9th 1791 The listing of individual rights in the Constitution and Bill of Rights does not include all of the rights of the people and the states.
10th 1791 Anything that the Constitution does not say Congress can do should be left up to the states, or to the people.

Later Amendments

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After the Bill of Rights, there are 17 more changes to the Constitution that were made at different times.

Number Year Description
11th 1795 Citizens cannot sue states in federal courts. There are some exceptions.
12th 1804 Changed the way the President and Vice President are elected.
13th 1865 Ended slavery in the United States.
14th 1868 Every person born in the United States is a citizen. States must follow due process of law before taking away any citizen's rights or property.
15th 1870 A citizen's right to vote cannot be taken away because of race, the color of their skin, or because they used to be slaves.
16th 1913 Congress can put a tax on income.
17th 1913 The people will elect Senators. Before this, Senators were elected by state legislatures.
18th 1919 Made a law against drinking alcohol, called Prohibition.
19th 1920 Gave women the right to vote.
20th 1933 Changed the days for meetings of Congress and for the start of the President's term of office.
21st 1933 Ended the Prohibition law of the Eighteenth Amendment. States can make laws about how alcohol is used in each state.
22nd 1951 A person may not be elected President more than two times.
23rd 1961 Gave the people in the District of Columbia the right to vote for President.
24th 1964 Made it illegal to make anyone pay a tax to have the right to vote.
25th 1967 Changes what happens if a President dies, resigns, or is not able to do the job. Says what happens if a Vice President dies or resigns.
26th 1971 Makes 18 years old the minimum age for people to be allowed to vote.
27th 1992 Limits how Congress can increase how much its members are paid.
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References

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  • Amar, Akhil Reed (2005). "In the Beginning". America's Constitution: A Biography. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6262-4.
  • Bailyn, Bernard, ed. The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification. Part One: September 1787 to February 1788 (The Library of America, 1993) ISBN 0-940450-42-9
  • Bailyn, Bernard, ed. The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification. Part Two: January to August 1788 (The Library of America, 1993) ISBN 0-940450-64-X
  • Edling, Max M. (2003). A Revolution in Favor of Government: Origins of the U.S. Constitution and the Making of the American State. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514870-3.
  • Ellis, Joseph (2002). Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70524-4.
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  • Finkelman, Paul "Affirmative Action for the Master Class: The Creation of the Proslavery Constitution," University of Akron Law Review 32 (No. 3, 1999): 423-70.
  • Finkelman, Paul Slavery and the Founders: Race and Slavery in the Age of Jefferson (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996);
  • Finkelman, Paul "Slavery and the Constitution: Making a Covenant with Death," in Richard R. Beeman, Stephen Botein, and Edward C., Carter, II, eds., Beyond Confederation: Origins of the Constitution and American National Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987);
  • Hall, Kermit L. (1984). A Comprehensive Bibliography of American Constitutional and Legal History, 1896-1979. Millwood, N. Y.: Kraus International. ISBN 0-527-37408-3.
  • Kammen, Michael (1986). A Machine that Would Go of Itself: The Constitution in American Culture. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-52905-7.
  • Kelly, Alfred Hinsey; Harbison, Winfred Audif; Belz, Herman (1991). The American Constitution: its origins and development (7th ed.). New York: Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-96119-2.
  • Levy, Leonard W., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of the American Constitution (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-864880-3.
  • Marshall, Thurgood, "The Constitution: A Living Document," Howard Law Journal 1987: 623-28.
  • Mazzone, Jason (2005). "The Creation of a Constitutional Culture". Tulsa Law Review. 40 (4): 671.
  • Smith, Jean Edward; Levine, Herbert M. (1988). Civil Liberties & Civil Rights Debated. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
  • Smith, Jean Edward (1996). John Marshall: Definer Of A Nation. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
  • Smith, Jean Edward (1989). The Constitution And American Foreign Policy. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company.
  • Wiecek, William M., "The Witch at the Christening: Slavery and the Constitution's Origins," Leonard W. Levy and Dennis J. Mahoney, eds., The Framing and Ratification of the Constitution (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 178-84.
  • Wiecek, William M., "'The Blessings of Liberty': Slavery in the American Constitutional Order," in Robert A. Goldman and Art Kaufman, eds., Slavery and Its Consequences: The Constitution, Equality, and Race (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1988), 23-34.

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References

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  1. ↑ Library of Congress
  2. ↑ "US Government Printing Office". Archived from the original on 2006-12-06. Retrieved 2006-09-25.
  3. ↑ Exploring Constitutional Conflicts
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