Oxley

Celt" redirects here. For other uses, see Celt (disambiguation). This article is about the ancient peoples of Europe. For Celts of the present day, see Celts (modern). Celtae redirects here. For the band see Celtae (band).

Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples:

 core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BC
 maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BC
 Lusitanian area of Iberia where Celtic presence is uncertain
 the "six Celtic nations" which retained significant numbers of Celtic speakers into the Early Modern period
 areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today

Indo-European topics Indo-European languages (list) Albanian · Armenian · Baltic Celtic · Germanic · Greek Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian) Italic · Slavic extinct: Anatolian · Paleo-Balkan (Dacian, Phrygian, Thracian) · Tocharian Proto-Indo-European language Vocabulary · Phonology · Sound laws · Ablaut · Root · Noun · Verb

Indo-European language-speaking peoples Europe: Balts · Slavs · Albanians · Italics · Celts · Germanic peoples · Greeks · Paleo-Balkans (Illyrians · Thracians · Dacians) · Asia: Anatolians (Hittites, Luwians) · Armenians · Indo-Iranians (Iranians · Indo-Aryans) · Tocharians Proto-Indo-Europeans Homeland · Society · Religion

Indo-European archaeology Abashevo culture · Afanasevo culture · Andronovo culture · Baden culture · Beaker culture · Catacomb culture · Cernavodă culture · Chasséen culture · Chernoles culture · Corded Ware culture · Cucuteni-Trypillian culture · Dnieper-Donets culture · Gumelniţa-Karanovo culture · Gushi culture · Karasuk culture · Kemi Oba culture · Khvalynsk culture · Kura-Araxes culture · Lusatian culture · Kurgan · Koban · Kura-Araxes · Shulaveri-Shomu · Colchian · Trialeti · Maykop culture · Leyla-Tepe culture · Jar-Burial · Khojaly-Gadabay · Middle Dnieper culture · Narva culture · Novotitorovka culture · Poltavka culture · Potapovka culture · Samara culture · Seroglazovo culture · Sredny Stog culture · Srubna culture · Terramare culture · Usatovo culture · Vučedol culture · Yamna culture

Indo-European studies The Celts ( /ˈkɛlts/ or /ˈsɛlts/, see pronunciation of Celtic) were an Indo-European and ethno-linguistically diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Roman-era Europe who spoke Celtic languages.[1] The earliest archaeological culture that may justifiably be considered as Proto-Celtic is the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe from the last quarter of the second millennium BC.[2] Their fully Celtic[2] descendants in central Europe were the people of the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (c. 800-450 BC) named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria.[3] By the later La Tène period (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had expanded over a wide range of regions, whether by diffusion or migration: to the British Isles (Insular Celts), France and The Low Countries (Gauls), much of Central Europe, the Iberian Peninsula (Celtiberians, Celtici and Gallaeci) and northern Italy (Golaseccans and Cisalpine Gauls)[4] and following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC as far east as central Anatolia (Galatians).[5] The earliest directly attested examples of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions, beginning from the 6th century BC.[6] Continental Celtic languages are attested only in inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic is attested from about the 4th century in ogham inscriptions, although it is clearly much earlier. Literary tradition begins with Old Irish from about the 8th century. Coherent texts of Early Irish literature, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge (The Cattle Raid of Cooley), survive in 12th-century recensions. By mid 1st millennium AD, following the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations (Migration Period) of Germanic peoples, Celtic culture and Insular Celtic had become restricted to Ireland, to the western and northern parts of Great Britain (Wales, Scotland, Cornwall and the Isle of Man), and to northern France (Brittany). Between the fifth and eighth centuries the Celtic-speaking communities of the Atlantic regions had emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. In language, religion, and art they shared a common heritage that distinguished them from the culture of surrounding polities.[7] The Continental Celtic languages ceased to be widely used by the 6th century. Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels (Irish, Scottish and Manx) and the Brythonic Celts (Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern "Celtic identity" was constructed in the context of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Great Britain, Ireland, and other European territories, such as Galicia.[8] Today Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton remain spoken in parts of their historical territories, and both Cornish and Manx are currently undergoing revival. Contents [hide] 1 Names and terminology 2 Origins 2.1 Linguistic evidence 2.2 Archaeological evidence 2.3 Historical evidence 2.4 Minority views 3 Distribution 3.1 Continental Celts 3.1.1 Gaul 3.1.2 Iberia 3.1.3 Alps and Po Valley 3.1.4 Eastward expansion 3.2 Insular Celts 4 Romanisation 5 Society 5.1 Clothing 5.2 Gender and sexual norms 5.3 Celtic art 6 Warfare and weapons 6.1 Head hunting 7 Religion 7.1 Polytheism 7.2 Gallic Calendar 7.3 Roman Influence 7.4 Celtic Christianity 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Literature 11 External links 11.1 Additional articles 11.2 Geography 11.3 Multimedia 11.4 Organisations 11.5 Special interest Names and terminology

Main article: Names of the Celts

Galician Celtic Stele: Apana · Ambo/lli · f(ilia) · Celtica /Supertam(arica) · / [j] Miobri · /an(norum) · XXV · h(ic) · s(ita) · e(st) · /Apanus · fr(ater) · f(aciendum)· c(uravit) The first recorded use of the word Celts (Κελτοί) to refer to an ethnic group was by Hecataeus of Miletus, the Greek geographer, in 517 BC,[9] when writing about a people living near "Massilia" (Marseille).[10] According to the testimony of Julius Caesar and Strabo, the Latin name "Celtus" (pl. "Celti" or "Celtae") and the Greek (Κέλτης pl. Κέλται or Κελτός pl. Κελτοί) were borrowed from a native Celtic tribal name.[11][12] Pliny the Elder referred it as being used in Lusitania as a tribal surname[13] which epigraphic findings confirm.[14][15] Latin "Gallus" might originally be from a Celtic ethnic or tribal name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansions into Italy of the early 5th century BC. Its root may be the Common Celtic "*galno", meaning power or strength. Galli, Gallaeci and Galatae most probably go with Old Irish gal 'boldness, ferocity' and Welsh gallu 'to be able, power'.[16] The Greek "Galatai" seems to be based on the same root, borrowed directly from the same hypothetical Celtic source which gave us "Galli" (the suffix "-atai" is an Ancient Greek inflection).[17] (see Galatia in Anatolia) The English word "Celt" is modern, attested from 1707 in the writings of Edward Lhuyd whose work, along with that of other late 17th-century scholars, brought academic attention to the languages and history of these early inhabitants of Great Britain.[18] The English form "Gaul" (first recorded in the 17th century) and "Gaulish" come from the French "Gaule" and "Gaulois", which translate Latin "Gallia" and "Gallus, -icus" respectively. In Old French, the words "gualeis", "galois", "walois" (Northern French phonetics keeping /w/) had different meanings: Welsh or the Langue d'oïl, etc. On the other hand, the word "Waulle" (Northern French phonetics keeping /w/) is recorded for the first time in the 13th century to translate the Latin word Gallia, while "gaulois" is recorded for the first time in the 15th century, and the scholars use it to translate the Latin words Gallus / Gallicus. The word comes from Proto-Germanic *Walha- (see Gaul: Name). The English word "Welsh" originates from the word wælisċ, the Anglo-Saxon form of *walhiska-, the reconstructed Proto-Germanic word for "foreign"[19] or "Celt" (South German Welsch(e) "Celtic speaker", "French speaker", "Italian speaker"; Old Norse "valskr", pl. "valir" "Gaulish", "French"), that is supposed to be derived of the name of the "Volcae",[20] a Celtic tribe who lived first in the South of Germany and emigrated then to Gaul.[21] The notion of an identifiable Celtic cultural identity or "Celticity", though problematic, generally centres on language, art and classical texts,[22] though can also include, material artifacts, social organisation, homeland and mythology.[23] Earlier theories were that this indicated a common racial origin but more recent theories are reflective of culture and language rather than race. Celtic cultures seem to have had numerous diverse characteristics but the commonality between these diverse peoples was the use of a Celtic language.[citation needed]. "Celtic" is a descriptor of a family of languages and, more generally, means "of the Celts", or "in the style of the Celts". It has also been used to refer to several archaeological cultures defined by unique sets of artifacts. The link between language and artifact is aided by the presence of inscriptions.[24] (see Celtic (disambiguation) for other applications of the term) Today, the term Celtic is generally used to describe the languages and respective cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man and Brittany, also known as the Six Celtic Nations. These are the regions where four Celtic languages are still spoken to some extent as mother tongues: Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton, plus two recent revivals, Cornish (one of the Brythonic languages) and Manx (one of the Goidelic languages). There are also attempts to reconstruct the Cumbric language (a Brythonic language from Northwest England and Southwest Scotland). 'Celtic' is also sometimes used to describe regions of Continental Europe that claim a Celtic heritage, but where no Celtic language has survived; these areas include the western Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Portugal, and north-central Spain (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Castile and León, Extremadura).[25] (see Modern Celts) "Continental Celts" refers to the Celtic-speaking people of mainland Europe. "Insular Celts" refers to the different Celtic-speaking peoples of the British and Irish islands and to their descendants. The Celts of Brittany derive their language from migrating insular Celts mainly from Wales and Cornwall and so are grouped accordingly.[26] Origins

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) Main articles: Pre-Celtic and Celticization

Overview of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures.

 The core Hallstatt territory (HaC, 800 BC) is shown in solid yellow,
 the eventual area of Hallstatt influence (by 500 BC, HaD) in light yellow.
 The core territory of the La Tène culture (450 BC) is shown in solid green,
 the eventual area of La Tène influence (by 250 BC) in light green.

The territories of some major Celtic tribes of the late La Tène period are labelled. The Celtic languages form a branch of the larger Indo-European family. By the time speakers of Celtic languages enter history around 400 BC, they were already split into several language groups, and spread over much of Western continental Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, Ireland and Britain. Some scholars think that the Urnfield culture of Western Middle Europe represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European family.[2] This culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age, from ca. 1200 BC until 700 BC, itself following the Unetice and Tumulus cultures. The Urnfield period saw a dramatic increase in population in the region, probably due to innovations in technology and agricultural practices. The Greek historian Ephoros of Cyme in Asia Minor, writing in the 4th century BC, believed that the Celts came from the islands off the mouth of the Rhine and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and the violent rising of the sea". The spread of iron-working led to the development of the Hallstatt culture directly from the Urnfield (ca. 700 to 500 BC). Proto-Celtic, the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages, is considered by this school of thought to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures, in the early 1st millennium BC. The spread of the Celtic languages to Iberia, Ireland and Britain would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium BC, the earliest chariot burials in Britain dating to c. 500 BC. Other scholars see Celtic languages as covering Britain and Ireland, and parts of the Continent, long before any evidence of "Celtic" culture is found in archaeology. Over the centuries the language(s) developed into the separate Celtiberian, Goidelic and Brythonic languages. The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the La Tène culture of central Europe, which was overrun by the Roman Empire, though traces of La Tène style are still to be seen in Gallo-Roman artefacts. In Britain and Ireland La Tène style in art survived precariously to re-emerge in Insular art. Early Irish literature casts light on the flavour and tradition of the heroic warrior elites who dominated Celtic societies. Celtic river-names are found in great numbers around the upper reaches of the Danube and Rhine, which led many Celtic scholars to place the ethnogenesis of the Celts in this area. Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both suggest that the Celtic heartland was in southern France. The former says that the Gauls were to the north of the Celts but that the Romans referred to both as Gauls. Before the discoveries at Hallstatt and La Tene, it was generally considered that the Celtic heartland was southern France, see Encyclopædia Britannica for 1813. Linguistic evidence Main article: Proto-Celtic language Further information: Celtic toponymy The Proto-Celtic language is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age.[2] The earliest records of a Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul, the oldest of which still predate the La Tène period. Other early inscriptions are Gaulish, appearing from the early La Tène period in inscriptions in the area of Massilia, in the Greek alphabet. Celtiberian inscriptions appear comparatively late, after about 200 BC. Evidence of Insular Celtic is available only from about 400 AD, in the form of Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions. Besides epigraphical evidence, an important source of information on early Celtic is toponymy.[27] Archaeological evidence Further information: Iron Age Europe

Map of the Hallstatt Culture Before the 19th century, scholars[who?] assumed that the original land of the Celts was west of the Rhine, more precisely in Gaul, because it was where Greek and Roman ancient sources, namely Cesar, located the Celts. This view was challenged by Jubainville[citation needed] who placed the land of origin of the Celts east of the Rhine. Jubainville based his arguments on a phrase of Herodotus´ that placed the Celts at the source of the Danube, and argued that Herodotus had meant to place the Celtic homeland in southern Germany. The finding of the prehistoric cemetery of Hallstat in 1846 by Johan Ramsauer and almost ten years later the finding of the archaeological site of La Tène by Hansli Kopp in 1857 draw attention to this area. The concept that the Hallstatt and La Tene cultures could be seen not just as chronological periods but as “Culture Groups”, entities composed of people of the same ethnicity and language, started to grow by the end of the 19th century. In the beginning of the 20th century the belief that those “Culture Groups” could be thought in racial or ethnic terms was strongly held by Gordon Childe whose theory was influenced by the writings of Gustaf Kossinna.[28] Along the 20th century the racial ethnic interpretation of La Tene culture rooted much stronger, and any findings of “La Tene culture” and “flat inhumation cemeteries” were directly associated with the celts and the celtic language.[29] The Iron Age Hallstatt (c. 800-475 BC) and La Tène (c. 500-50 BC) cultures are typically associated with Proto-Celtic and Celtic culture.[30] In various[clarification needed] academic disciplines the Celts were considered a Central European Iron Age phenomenon, through the cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène. However, archaeological finds from the Halstatt and La Tène culture were rare in the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern France, northern and western Britain, southern Ireland and Galatia[31][32] and did not provide enough evidence for a cultural scenario comparable to that of Central Europe. It is considered equally difficult to maintain that the origin of the Peninsular Celts can be linked to the preceding Urnfield culture, leading to a more recent approach that introduces a 'proto-Celtic' substratum and a process of Celticisation having its initial roots in the Bronze Age Bell Beaker culture.[33]

Expansion of the Celtic culture in the IIIth century BC according to Francisco Villar in The Indo-Europeans and the origins of Europe - Italian version p.446

The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. It developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from Greek, and later Etruscan civilisations. A shift of settlement centres took place in the 4th century. The western La Tène culture corresponds to historical Celtic Gaul. Whether this means that the whole of La Tène culture can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists have repeatedly concluded that language, material culture, and political affiliation do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes that in the 5th century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct artistic expressions".[34] Thus, while the La Tène culture is certainly associated with the Gauls, the presence of La Tène artefacts may be due to cultural contact and does not imply the permanent presence of Celtic speakers. Historical evidence Polybius published a history of Rome about 150 BC in which he describes the Gauls of Italy and their conflict with Rome. Pausanias in the 2nd century BC says that the Gauls "originally called Celts", "live on the remotest region of Europe on the coast of an enormous tidal sea". Posidonius described the southern Gauls about 100 BC. Though his original work is lost it was used by later writers such as Strabo. The latter, writing in the early 1st century AD, deals with Britain and Gaul as well as Hispania, Italy and Galatia. Caesar wrote extensively about his Gallic Wars in 58-51 BC. Diodorus Siculus wrote about the Celts of Gaul and Britain in his 1st-century history. Minority views Martín Almagro Gorbea[35] proposed the origins of the Celts could be traced back to the 3rd millennium BC, seeking the initial roots in the Bell Beaker culture, thus offering the wide dispersion of the Celts throughout western Europe, as well as the variability of the different Celtic peoples, and the existence of ancestral traditions an ancient perspective. More recently, John Koch[36] and Barry Cunliffe[37] have suggested that Celtic origins lie with the Atlantic Bronze Age, roughly contemporaneous with the Hallstatt culture but positioned considerably to the West, extending along the Atlantic coast of Europe. Stephen Oppenheimer[38] points out that Herodotus seemed to believe the Danube rose near the Pyrenees. Distribution

Continental Celts Gaul

Repartition of Gaul ca. 54 BC Main article: Gauls At the dawn of history in Europe, the Celts then living in what is now France were known as Gauls to the Romans. The territory of these peoples probably included the low countries, the Alps and what is now northern Italy. Their descendants were described by Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars. Eastern Gaul was the centre of the western La Tène culture. In later Iron Age Gaul, the social organisation was similar to that of the Romans, with large towns. From the 3rd century BC the Gauls adopted coinage, and texts with Greek characters are known in southern Gaul from the 2nd century. Greek traders founded Massalia in about 600 BC, with exchange up the Rhone valley, but trade was disrupted soon after 500 BC and re-oriented over the Alps to the Po valley in Italy. The Romans arrived in the Rhone valley in the 2nd century BC and encountered a Gaul that was mostly Celtic-speaking. Rome needed land communications with its Iberian provinces and fought a major battle with the Saluvii at Entremont in 124-123 BC. Gradually Roman control extended, and the Roman Province of Gallia Transalpina was formed along the Mediterranean coast. The remainder was known as Gallia Comata - "Hairy Gaul". In 58 BC, the Helvetii planned to migrate westward but were forced back by Julius Caesar. He then became involved in fighting the various tribes in Gaul, and by 55 BC, most of Gaul had been overrun. In 52 BC, Vercingetorix led a revolt against the Roman occupation but was defeated at the siege of Alesia and surrendered. Following the Gallic Wars of 58-51 BC, Caesar's Celtica formed the main part of Roman Gaul. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne.[39] Place and personal name analysis and inscriptions suggest that the Gaulish Celtic language was spoken over most of what is now France.[40] Iberia

Main language areas in Iberia, showing Celtic languages in beige, circa 300 BC.

Triskelion and spirals on a Galician torc terminal (Museu do castro de Santa Tegra). Main articles: Celtiberians and Gallaeci See also: Castro culture, Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, Prehistoric Iberia, Hispania, Lusitania, Gallaecia, and Celtici Until the end of the 19th century, traditional scholarship dealing with the Celts did acknowledge their presence in the Iberian Peninsula[41][42] as a material culture relatable to the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. However, since according to the definition of the Iron Age in the 19th century Celtic populations were supposedly rare in Iberia and did not provide a cultural scenario that could easily be linked to that of Central Europe, the presence of celtic culture in that region was generally not fully recognised. Three divisions of the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula were assumed to have existed: the Celtiberians in the mountains near the centre of the peninsula, the Celtici in the southwest, and the celts in the northwest (in Gallaecia and Asturias).[43] Modern scholarship, however, has clearly proven that Celtic presence and influences were most substantial in what is today Spain and Portugal (with perhaps the highest settlement saturation in Western Europe), particularly in the central, western and northern regions.[44][45] The Celts in Iberia were divided into two main archaeological and cultural groups,[46] even though that division is not very clear: One group was spread out along Galicia[47] and the Iberian Atlantic shores. They were made up of the Proto / Para-Celtic Lusitanians (in Portugal)[48] and the Celtic region that Strabo called Celtica in the southwestern Iberian peninsula,[49] including the Algarve, which was inhabited by the Celtici, the Vettones and Vacceani peoples[50] (of central-western Spain and Portugal), and the Gallaecian, Astures and Cantabrian peoples of the Castro culture of northern and northwestern Spain and Portugal.[51] The Celtiberian group of central Spain and the upper Ebro valley.[52] This group originated when Celts (mainly Gauls and some Celtic-Germanic groups) migrated from what is now France and integrated with the local Iberian people. The origins of the Celtiberians might provide a key to understanding the Celticisation process in the rest of the Peninsula. The process of Celticisation of the southwestern area of the peninsula by the Keltoi and of the northwestern area is, however, not a simple Celtiberian question. Recent investigations about the Callaici[53] and Bracari[54] in northwestern Portugal are providing new approaches to understanding Celtic culture (language, art and religion) in western Iberia.[55] John T. Koch of the University of Wales-Aberystwyth suggested that Tartessian inscriptions of the 8th century BC might already be classified as Celtic. This would mean that Tartessian is the earliest attested trace of Celtic by margin of more than a century.[56] Alps and Po Valley Main articles: Golasecca culture, Lepontii, and Cisalpine Gaul Further information: History of the Alps

Map of the Alpine region of the Roman Empire as of AD 14. It had been known for some time that there was an early, although apparently somewhat limited, Celtic (Lepontic, sometimes called Cisalpine Celtic) presence in Northern Italy since inscriptions dated to the 6th century BC have been found there. The site of Golasecca, where the Ticino exits from Lake Maggiore, was particularly suitable for long-distance exchanges, in which Golaseccans acted as intermediaries between Etruscans and the Halstatt culture of Austria, supported on the all-important trade in salt. In 391 BC Celts "who had their homes beyond the Alps streamed through the passes in great strength and seized the territory that lay between the Appennine mountains and the Alps" according to Diodorus Siculus. The Po Valley and the rest of northern Italy (known to the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul) was inhabited by Celtic-speakers who founded cities such as Milan.[57] Later the Roman army was routed at the battle of Allia and Rome was sacked in 390 BC by the Senones. At the battle of Telamon in 225 BC a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed. The defeat of the combined Samnite, Celtic and Etruscan alliance by the Romans in the Third Samnite War sounded the beginning of the end of the Celtic domination in mainland Europe, but it was not until 192 BC that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy. Eastward expansion Main article: Gallic invasion of the Balkans

Celtic tribes in S.E.E c. 1st century BC (in purple) The Celts also expanded down the Danube river and its tributaries. One of the most influential tribes, the Scordisci, had established their capital at Singidunum in 3rd century BC, which is present-day Belgrade, Serbia. The concentration of hill-forts and cemeteries shows a density of population in the Tisza valley of modern-day Vojvodina, Serbia, Hungary and into Ukraine. Expansion into Romania was however blocked by the Dacians. Further south, Celts settled in Thrace (Bulgaria), which they ruled for over a century, and Anatolia, where they settled as the Galatians (see also: Gallic Invasion of Greece). Despite their geographical isolation from the rest of the Celtic world, the Galatians maintained their Celtic language for at least 700 years. St Jerome, who visited Ancyra (modern-day Ankara) in 373 AD, likened their language to that of the Treveri of northern Gaul. For Venceslas Kruta, Galatia in central Turkey was an area of dense celtic settlement. The Boii tribe gave their name to Bohemia, Bologna and possibly Bavaria, and Celtic artefacts and cemeteries have been discovered further east in what is now Poland and Slovakia. A celtic coin (Biatec) from Bratislava's mint was displayed on the old Slovak 5-crown coin. As there is no archaeological evidence for large-scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion.[58] However, the Celtic invasions of Italy and the expedition in Greece and western Anatolia, are well documented in Greek and Latin history. There are records of Celtic mercenaries in Egypt serving the Ptolemies. Thousands were employed in 283-246 BC and they were also in service around 186 BC. They attempted to overthrow Ptolemy II. Insular Celts Main article: Insular Celts Further information: Iron Age Britain and Celtic immigration to the British Isles Further information: Iron Age tribes in Britain, Goidelic substrate hypothesis, and O'Rahilly's historical model

Principal sites in Roman Britain, with indication of tribal territories. All Celtic languages extant today belong to the Insular Celtic languages, derived from the Celtic languages spoken in Iron Age Britain. They were separated into a Goidelic and a Brythonic branch from an early period. Linguists have been arguing for many years whether a Celtic language came to Britain and Ireland and then split or whether there were two separate "invasions". The older view of prehistorians was that the Celtic influence in the British Isles was the result of successive invasions from the European continent by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over the course of several centuries, accounting for the P-Celtic vs. Q-Celtic isogloss. This view is now generally discredited in favour of a phylogenetic Insular Celtic dialect group. Celtic arrival in Britain is usually taken to correspond to Hallstatt influence and the appearance of chariot burials in what is now England from about the 6th century BC. Some Iron Age migration does seem to have occurred but the nature of the interactions with the indigenous populations of the isles is unknown. In the late Iron Age Pryor estimates that the population of Britain and Ireland was between 1 and 1.5 million, upon which a smaller number of Celtic-speaking immigrant populations would have installed themselves as a superstrate. By about the 6th century (Sub-Roman Britain), most of the inhabitants of the Isles were speaking Celtic languages of either the Goidelic or the Brythonic branch. After Caesar's conquest of Gaul in the 50s BC, some Belgic people seem to have come to central southern Britain.[59] Though there was a tribe called Parisi in eastern Yorkshire, these were probably a British people with cultural links to the continent. It has been claimed that there were a tribe of Iverni in Ireland who spoke a Brythonic language. In Ireland as in Great Britain, beginning Celtic influence is taken to correspond to the beginning Iron Age. The adoption of Celtic culture and language was likely a gradual transformation, brought on by cultural exchange with Celtic groups in the mainland or otherwise southwest continental Europe. Romanisation

Main article: Gallo-Roman culture

The Roman republic and its neighbours in 58 BC. Under Caesar the Romans conquered Celtic Gaul, and from Claudius onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of Britain. Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman tribal boundaries, and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government. The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanised and keen to adopt Roman ways. Celtic art had already incorporated classical influences, and surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay. The Roman occupation of Gaul, and to a lesser extent of Britain, led to Roman-Celtic syncretism. In the case of the continental Celts, this eventually resulted in a language shift to Vulgar Latin, while the Insular Celts retained their language. There was also considerable cultural influence exerted by Gaul on Rome, particularly in military matters and horsemanship, as the Gauls often served in the Roman cavalry. The Romans adopted the Celtic cavalry sword, the spatha, and Epona, the Celtic horse goddess.[60][61] Society

Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice, Czech Republic, wearing a torc, late La Tène culture. To the extent that sources are available, they depict a pre-Christian Celtic social structure based formally on class and kingship. Patron-client relationships similar to those of Roman society are also described by Caesar and others in the Gaul of the 1st century BC. In the main, the evidence is of tribes being led by kings, although some argue that there is also evidence of oligarchical republican forms of government eventually emerging in areas which had close contact with Rome. Most descriptions of Celtic societies portray them as being divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy; an intellectual class including professions such as druid, poet, and jurist; and everyone else. In historical times, the offices of high and low kings in Ireland and Scotland were filled by election under the system of tanistry, which eventually came into conflict with the feudal principle of primogeniture in which succession goes to the first born son. Little is known of family structure among the Celts. Patterns of settlement varied from decentralised to urban. The popular stereotype of non-urbanised societies settled in hillforts and duns,[62] drawn from Britain and Ireland (there are about 3,000 hill forts known in Britain)[63] contrasts with the urban settlements present in the core Hallstatt and La Tene areas, with the many significant oppida of Gaul late in the first millennium BC, and with the towns of Gallia Cisalpina. Slavery, as practised by the Celts, was very likely similar to the better documented practice in ancient Greece and Rome.[64] Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude.[64] Slavery was hereditary[citation needed], though manumission was possible. The Old Irish word for slave, cacht, and the Welsh term caeth are likely derived from the Latin captus, captive, suggesting that slave trade was an early venue of contact between Latin and Celtic societies.[64] In the Middle Ages, slavery was especially prevalent in the Celtic countries.[65] Manumissions were discouraged by law and the word for "female slave", cumal, was used as a general unit of value in Ireland.[66] Archaeological evidence suggests that the pre-Roman Celtic societies were linked to the network of overland trade routes that spanned Eurasia. Archaeologists have discovered large prehistoric trackways crossing bogs in Ireland and Germany. Due to their substantial nature, these are believed to have been created for wheeled transport as part of an extensive roadway system that facilitated trade.[67] The territory held by the Celts contained tin, lead, iron, silver and gold.[68] Celtic smiths and metalworkers created weapons and jewellery for international trade, particularly with the Romans. The myth that the Celtic monetary system consisted of wholly barter is a common one, but is in part false. The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This is the collective term used to describe bronze items made from the early La Tene period onwards, which were often in the shape of axeheads, rings, or bells. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high monetary value, and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of potin, a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South-East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands. Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high-quality bronze. Gold coinage was much more common than silver coinage, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparcity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common. This coincided with a major increase in gold production in Celtic areas to meet the Roman demand, due to the high value Romans put on the metal. The large number of gold mines in France is thought to be a major reason why Caesar invaded.

The Dying Gaul, a Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BC Capitoline Museums, Rome There are only very limited records from pre-Christian times written in Celtic languages. These are mostly inscriptions in the Roman and sometimes Greek alphabets. The Ogham script, an Early Medieval alphabet, was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland (but also in Wales and England), and was only used for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones. The available evidence is of a strong oral tradition, such as that preserved by bards in Ireland, and eventually recorded by monasteries. The oldest recorded rhyming poetry in the world is of Irish origin[69] and is a transcription of a much older epic poem, leading some scholars to claim that the Celts invented rhyme. Celtic art also produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites. In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative: for example, they still used chariots in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans. However, despite being outdated, Celtic chariot tactics were able to repel the invasion of Britain attempted by Julius Caesar. According to Diodorus Siculus: The Gauls are tall of body with rippling muscles and white of skin and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so for they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in limewater and they pull it back from the forehead to the nape of the neck, with the result that their appearance is like that of Satyrs and Pans since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses. Some of them shave the beard but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks but they let the moustache grow until it covers the mouth. —Diodorus Siculus Clothing

The Waterloo Helmet During the later Iron Age the Gauls generally wore long-sleeved shirts or tunics and long trousers (called braccae by the Romans).[70] Clothes were made of wool or linen, with some silk being used by the rich. Cloaks were worn in the winter. Brooches and armlets were used, but the most famous item of jewellery was the torc, a neck collar of metal, sometimes gold. The horned Waterloo Helmet in the British Museum, which long set the standard for modern images of Celtic warriors, is in fact a unique survival, and may have been a piece for ceremonial rather than military wear. Gender and sexual norms

Reconstruction of a Celtic warrior's garments, museum Kelten-Keller, Rodheim-Bieber, Germany According to Aristotle, most "belligerent nations" were strongly influenced by their women, but the Celts were unusual because their men openly preferred male lovers (Politics II 1269b).[71] H. D. Rankin in Celts and the Classical World notes that "Athenaeus echoes this comment (603a) and so does Ammianus (30.9). It seems to be the general opinion of antiquity."[72] In book XIII of his Deipnosophists, the Roman Greek rhetorician and grammarian Athenaeus, repeating assertions made by Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC (Bibliotheca historica 5:32), wrote that Celtic women were beautiful but that the men preferred to sleep together. Diodorus went further, stating that "the young men will offer themselves to strangers and are insulted if the offer is refused". Rankin argues that the ultimate source of these assertions is likely to be Poseidonius and speculates that these authors may be recording male "bonding rituals".[73] The sexual freedom of women in Britain was noted by Cassius Dio:[74] ...a very witty remark is reported to have been made by the wife of Argentocoxus, a Caledonian, to Julia Augusta. When the empress was jesting with her, after the treaty, about the free intercourse of her sex with men in Britain, she replied: "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest." Such was the retort of the British woman. —Cassius Dio There are instances recorded where women participated both in warfare and in kingship, although they were in the minority in these areas. Plutarch reports that Celtic women acted as ambassadors to avoid a war among Celts chiefdoms in the Po valley during the 4th century BC.[75] Very few reliable sources exist regarding Celtic views towards gender divisions and societal statues, though some archaeological evidence does suggest that their views towards gender roles may differ from contemporary and less egalitarian classical counterparts of the Roman era.[76][77] There are some general indications from Iron Age burial sites in the Champagne and Bourgogne regions of Northeastern France which suggest that women may have had roles in combat during the earlier portions of the La Tène period. However, the evidence is far from conclusive.[78] Examples of individuals buried with both female jewellery and weaponry have been identified, such as the Vix Grave, and there are questions about the sexing of some skeletons that were buried with warrior assemblages. However, it has been suggested that "the weapons may indicate rank instead of masculinity".[79] Among the insular Celts, there is a greater amount of historic documentation to suggest warrior roles for women. In addition to commentary by Tacitus about Boudica, there are indications from later period histories that also suggest a more substantial role for "women as warriors" in symbolic if not actual roles. Posidonius and Strabo described an island of women where men could not venture for fear of death, and where the women ripped each other apart.[80] Other writers, such as Ammianus Marcellinus and Tacitus, mentioned Celtic women inciting, participating in, and leading battles.[81] Poseidonius' anthropological comments on the Celts had common themes, primarily primitivism, extreme ferocity, cruel sacrificial practices, and the strength and courage of their women.[82] Under Brehon Law, which was written down in early Medieval Ireland after conversion to Christianity, a woman had the right to divorce her husband and gain his property if he was unable to perform his marital duties due to impotence, obesity, homosexual inclination or preference for other women.[83] Celtic art

The reverse side of a British bronze mirror, with spiral and trumpet motifs typical of La Tène Celtic art in Britain Main article: Celtic art Celtic art is generally used by art historians to refer to art of the La Tène period across Europe, while the Early Medieval art of Britain and Ireland, that is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public, is called Insular art in art history. Both styles absorbed considerable influences from non-Celtic sources, but retained a preference for geometrical decoration over figurative subjects, which are often extremely stylised when they do appear; narrative scenes only appear under outside influence. Energetic circular forms, triskeles and spirals are characteristic. Much of the surviving material is in precious metal, which no doubt gives a very unrepresentative picture, but apart from Pictish stones and the Insular high crosses, large monumental sculpture, even with decorative carving, is very rare; possibly it was originally common in wood. The interlace patterns that are often regarded as typical of "Celtic art" were in fact introduced to Insular art from the animal Style II of Germanic Migration Period art, though taken up with great skill and enthusiasm by Celtic artists in metalwork and illuminated manuscripts. Equally, the forms used for the finest Insular art were all adopted from the Roman world: Gospel books like the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne, chalices like the Ardagh Chalice and Derrynaflan Chalice, and penannular brooches like the Tara Brooch. These works are from the period of peak achievement of Insular art, which lasted from the 7th to the 9th centuries, before the Viking attacks sharply set back cultural life. In contrast the less well known but often spectacular art of the richest earlier Continental Celts, before they were conquered by the Romans, often adopted elements of Roman, Greek and other "foreign" styles (and possibly used imported craftsmen) to decorate objects that were distinctively Celtic. After the Roman conquests, some Celtic elements remained in popular art, especially Ancient Roman pottery, of which Gaul was actually the largest producer, mostly in Italian styles, but also producing work in local taste, including figurines of deities and wares painted with animals and other subjects in highly formalised styles. Roman Britain also took more interest in enamel than most of the Empire, and its development of champlevé technique was probably important to the later Medieval art of the whole of Europe, of which the energy and freedom of Insular decoration was an important element. Warfare and weapons

Parade Helmet, Agris, France. 350 BC, with stylistic borrowings from around the Mediterranean. Main articles: Celtic warfare and Celtic sword Principal sites in Roman Britain, with indication of the Celtic tribes. Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory.[citation needed] The Celts were described by classical writers such as Strabo, Livy, Pausanias, and Florus as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. Dionysius said that their "manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in military science. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of wild boars, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all".[84] Such descriptions have been challenged by contemporary historians.[85] Polybius (2.33) indicates that the principal Celtic weapon was a long bladed sword which was used for hacking edgewise rather than stabbing. Celtic warriors are described by Polybius and Plutarch as frequently having to cease fighting in order to straighten their sword blades. This claim has been questioned by some archaeologists, who note that Noric steel, steel produced in Celtic Noricum, was famous in the Roman Empire period and was used to equip the Roman military.[86][87] However, Radomir Pleiner, in The Celtic Sword (1993) argues that "the metallographic evidence shows that Polybius was right up to a point", as around one third of surviving swords from the period might well have behaved as he describes.[88] Polybius also asserts that certain of the Celts fought naked, "The appearance of these naked warriors was a terrifying spectacle, for they were all men of splendid physique and in the prime of life."[89] According to Livy this was also true of the Celts of Asia Minor.[90] Head hunting

A Gallic statue of a Celtic warrior, in the Museum of Brittany Celts had a reputation as head hunters. According to Paul Jacobsthal, "Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world."[91] Arguments for a Celtic cult of the severed head include the many sculptured representations of severed heads in La Tène carvings, and the surviving Celtic mythology, which is full of stories of the severed heads of heroes and the saints who carry their decapitated heads, right down to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, where the Green Knight picks up his own severed head after Gawain has struck it off, just as St. Denis carried his head to the top of Montmartre. A further example of this regeneration after beheading lies in the tales of Connemara's St. Feichin, who after being beheaded by Viking pirates carried his head to the Holy Well on Omey Island and on dipping the head into the well placed it back upon his neck and was restored to full health. Diodorus Siculus, in his 1st century History had this to say about Celtic head-hunting: They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses. The blood-stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and striking up a paean and singing a song of victory; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses, just as do those who lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting. They embalm in cedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies, and preserve them carefully in a chest, and display them with pride to strangers, saying that for this head one of their ancestors, or his father, or the man himself, refused the offer of a large sum of money. They say that some of them boast that they refused the weight of the head in gold In Gods and Fighting Men, Lady Gregory's Celtic Revival translation of Irish mythology, heads of men killed in battle are described in the beginning of the story The Fight With The Fir Bolgs as pleasing to Macha, one aspect of the war goddess Morrigu. Religion

Polytheism Main article: Celtic polytheism

A statuette in the Museum of Brittany, Rennes, probably depicting Brigantia/Brigid: ca. 1st century AD, with iconography derived from Roman statues of Minerva. Like other European Iron Age tribal societies, the Celts practised a polytheistic religion.[92] Many Celtic gods are known from texts and inscriptions from the Roman period. Rites and sacrifices were carried out by priests known as druids. The Celts did not see their gods as having human shapes until late in the Iron Age. Celtic shrines were situated in remote areas such as hilltops, groves, and lakes. Celtic religious patterns were regionally variable; however, some patterns of deity forms, and ways of worshipping these deities, appeared over a wide geographical and temporal range. The Celts worshipped both gods and goddesses. In general, Celtic gods were deities of particular skills, such as the many-skilled Lugh and Dagda, while goddesses were associated with natural features, particularly rivers (such as Boann, goddess of the River Boyne). This was not universal, however, as goddesses such as Brighid and The Morrígan were associated with both natural features (holy wells and the River Unius) and skills such as blacksmithing and healing.[93] Triplicity is a common theme in Celtic cosmology, and a number of deities were seen as threefold.[94] This trait is exhibited by The Three Mothers, a group of goddesses worshipped by many Celtic tribes (with regional variations).[95] The Celts had literally hundreds of deities, some of which were unknown outside a single family or tribe, while others were popular enough to have a following that crossed lingual and cultural barriers. For instance, the Irish god Lugh, associated with storms, lightning, and culture, is seen in similar forms as Lugos in Gaul and Lleu in Wales. Similar patterns are also seen with the continental Celtic horse goddess Epona and what may well be her Irish and Welsh counterparts, Macha and Rhiannon, respectively.[96] Roman reports of the druids mention ceremonies being held in sacred groves. La Tène Celts built temples of varying size and shape, though they also maintained shrines at sacred trees and votive pools.[92] Druids fulfilled a variety of roles in Celtic religion, serving as priests and religious officiants, but also as judges, sacrificers, teachers, and lore-keepers. Druids organised and ran religious ceremonies, and they memorised and taught the calendar. Other classes of druids performed ceremonial sacrifices of crops and animals for the perceived benefit of the community.[97] Gallic Calendar Main article: Coligny calendar The Coligny calendar, which was found in 1897 in Coligny, Ain, was engraved on a bronze tablet, preserved in 73 fragments, that originally was 1.48 m wide and 0.9 m high (Lambert p. 111). Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects, it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century.[98] It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals, and is in the Gallic language. The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns, with 62 months distributed over 5 years. The French archaeologist J. Monard speculated that it was recorded by druids wishing to preserve their tradition of timekeeping in a time when the Julian calendar was imposed throughout the Roman Empire. However, the general form of the calendar suggests the public peg calendars (or parapegmata) found throughout the Greek and Roman world.[99] Roman Influence Further information: Gallo-Roman culture The Roman invasion of Gaul brought a great deal of Celtic peoples into the Roman Empire. Roman culture had a profound effect on the Celtic tribes which came under the empire's control. Roman influence led to many changes in Celtic religion, the most noticeable of which was the weakening of the druid class, especially religiously; the druids were to eventually disappear altogether. Romano-Celtic deities also began to appear: these deities often had both Roman and Celtic attributes and combined the names of Roman and Celtic deities. Other changes included the adaptation of the Jupiter Pole, a sacred pole which was used throughout Celtic regions of the empire, primarily in the north. Another major change in religious practice was the use of stone monuments to represent gods and goddesses. The Celts had only created wooden idols (including monuments carved into trees, which were known as sacred poles) previously to Roman conquest.[95] Celtic Christianity Main article: Celtic Christianity

A Celtic cross. While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of Ireland and Scotland moved from Celtic polytheism to Christianity in the 5th century. Ireland was converted under missionaries from Britain, such as Patrick. Later missionaries from Ireland were a major source of missionary work in Scotland, Saxon parts of Britain, and central Europe (see Hiberno-Scottish mission). The term Celtic Christianity has been applied to the forms of Christianity that took hold in Britain and Ireland at this time, with especial reference to its traditions that were distinct from the rest of Western Christianity. The development of Christianity in Ireland and Britain brought an early medieval renaissance of Celtic art between 390 and 1200 AD.[100][101] Many of the styles now thought of as typically "Celtic" developed in this period, and are found throughout much of Ireland and Britain, including the northeast and far north of Scotland, Orkney and Shetland. Notable works produced during this period include the Book of Kells and the Ardagh Chalice. Antiquarian interest from the 17th century led to the term Celt being extended, and rising nationalism brought Celtic revivals from the 19th century. See also

Culture portal Europe portal Celts portal Celtic nations Celtic languages Ethnic groups of Europe Modern Celts Rabbit From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Rabbit

Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Lagomorpha Family: Leporidae in part Genera Pentalagus Bunolagus Nesolagus Romerolagus Brachylagus Sylvilagus Oryctolagus Poelagus Rabbits are mammals of the order Lagomorpha. There are about fifty different species of rabbits and hares. The order Lagomorpha is made of rabbits, pikas and hares. Rabbits can be found in many parts of the world.[1] They live in families and eat vegetables and hay. In the wild, rabbits live in burrows, that they dig themselves. A group of rabbits living together in a burrow is called a warren. A male rabbit is called a buck, and a female is called a doe. A baby rabbit is called a kit, which is short for kitten. Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days. The female can have up to 12-13, very rarely litters as big as 18 and as small as one. Some people have rabbits as pets. Rabbits are also raised as meat animals. Rabbits are of a different biological classification than hares. Since rabbits are prey animals, they tend to be exploratory in new spaces and when confronted with a threat, they freeze and observe. Rabbit vision has a very wide field, and a good deal of it is devoted to overhead scanning. Even indoors, rabbits will scan for overhead threats. Rabbits have a complex social structure, and like dogs, will try to get a hierarchy and dominance. [change]References

↑ "Irish Mammals – Rabbits". eircom.net. Retrieved 2008-11-05.

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Dick Turpin

Dick Turpin was a highway man who went to Essex and changed his name to John Parmar.

Henrry VIII

Henry VIII marrid six times and had six wives.Henry VIII IS (VERY VERY) FAT and greedy.he was a show off and executed two of his wives and one of them was demi boleyn and also demi Howard.demi parr outlived henry but demi Seymour was his favourite.

Manchester United F.C.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "MUFC" redirects here. For other uses, see MUFC (disambiguation).

Manchester United

Full name Manchester United Football Club Nickname(s) The Red Devils[1] Founded 1878, as Newton Heath LYR F.C. Ground Old Trafford (Capacity: 75,811[2]) Owner Glazer family Co-chairmen Joel and Avram Glazer Manager Sir Alex Ferguson

League Premier League 2010–11 Premier League, 1st Website Club home page

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Manchester United Football Club is an English professional football club, based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, that plays in the Premier League. Founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878, the club changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to Old Trafford in 1910. The 1958 Munich air disaster claimed the lives of eight players. In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United was the first English football club to win the European Cup. The current manager, Sir Alex Ferguson, has won 37 major honours since he took over in November 1986.[3][4] Manchester United has won the most trophies in English football, including a record 19 league titles, a record 11 FA Cups,[5] four League Cups and 19 FA Community Shields. The club has also won three European Cups, one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, one UEFA Super Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FIFA Club World Cup. In 1998–99, the club won a "Treble" of the Premier League, the FA Cup and the UEFA Champions League, an unprecedented feat for an English club. Manchester United is one of the wealthiest and most widely supported football teams in the world.[6][7][8][9] As of July 2011, the club is number one in Forbes magazine's annual ranking of the world's 50 most valuable sports teams, valued at $1.86 billion.[10] After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £800 million.[11] Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Early years (1878–1945) 1.2 Busby years (1945–1969) 1.3 1969–1986 1.4 Ferguson years (1986–present) 2 Crest and colours 3 Grounds 4 Support 4.1 Rivalries 5 Global brand 5.1 Sponsorship 6 Ownership and finances 7 Players 7.1 First-team squad 7.2 Reserves and academy 7.3 Former players 7.4 Club captains 7.5 Player records 8 Club officials 8.1 Managerial history 9 Honours 9.1 Domestic 9.2 European 9.3 Worldwide 9.4 Doubles and Trebles 10 See also 11 Notes 11.1 Footnotes 11.2 Citations 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Independent sites History

Early years (1878–1945) Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1878–1945)

A chart showing the progress of Manchester United F.C. through the English football league system from joining as Newton Heath in 1892–93 to 2007–08 Manchester United was formed in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath.[12] The team initially played games against other departments and rail companies, but on 20 November 1880, they competed in their first recorded match; wearing the colours of the railway company – green and gold – they were defeated 6–0 by Bolton Wanderers' reserve team.[13] By 1888, the club had become a founding member of The Combination, a regional football league. Following the league's dissolution after only one season, Newton Heath joined the newly formed Football Alliance, which ran for three seasons before being merged with the Football League. This resulted in the club starting the 1892–93 season in the First Division, by which time it had become independent of the rail company and dropped the "LYR" from its name.[12] After two seasons, the club was relegated to the Second Division.[12]

The Manchester United team at the start of the 1905–06 season, in which they were runners-up in the Second Division In January 1902, with debts of £2,670 – equivalent to £210,000 as of 2012[nb 1] – the club was served with a winding-up order.[14] Captain Harry Stafford found four local businessmen, including John Henry Davies (who became club president), each willing to invest £500 in return for a direct interest in running the club and who subsequently changed the name;[15] on 24 April 1902, Manchester United was officially born.[16][nb 2] Under Ernest Mangnall, who assumed managerial duties in 1903, the team finished as Second Division runners-up in 1906 and secured promotion to the First Division, which they won in 1908 – the club's first league title. The following season began with victory in the first ever Charity Shield[17] and ended with the club's first FA Cup title. Manchester United won the First Division for the second time in 1911, but at the end of the following season, Mangnall left the club to join Manchester City.[18] In 1922, three years after the resumption of football following the First World War, the club was relegated to the Second Division, where it remained until regaining promotion in 1925. Relegated again in 1931, Manchester United became a yo-yo club, achieving its all-time lowest position of 20th place in the Second Division in 1934. Following the death of the club's principal benefactor, J. H. Davies, in October 1927, the club's finances deteriorated to the extent that Manchester United would likely have gone bankrupt had it not been for James W. Gibson, who, in December 1931, invested £2,000 and assumed control of the club.[19] In the 1938–39 season, the last year of football before the Second World War, the club finished 14th in the First Division.[19] Busby years (1945–1969) Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1945–1969)

The Busby Babes in Denmark in 1955 In October 1945, the impending resumption of football led to the managerial appointment of Matt Busby, who demanded an unprecedented level of control over team selection, player transfers and training sessions.[20] Busby led the team to second-place league finishes in 1947, 1948 and 1949, and to FA Cup victory in 1948. In 1952, the club won the First Division, its first league title for 41 years.[21] With an average age of 22, the media labelled the back-to-back title winning side of 1956 "the Busby Babes", a testament to Busby's faith in his youth players.[22] In 1957, Manchester United became the first English team to compete in the European Cup, despite objections from The Football League, who had denied Chelsea the same opportunity the previous season.[23] En route to the semi-final, which they lost to Real Madrid, the team recorded a 10–0 victory over Belgian champions Anderlecht, which remains the club's biggest victory on record.[24]

A plaque at Old Trafford in memory of those who died in the Munich air disaster, including players names The following season, on the way home from a European Cup quarter-final victory against Red Star Belgrade, the aircraft carrying the Manchester United players, officials and journalists crashed while attempting to take off after refuelling in Munich, Germany. The Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 claimed 23 lives, including those of eight players – Geoff Bent, Roger Byrne, Eddie Colman, Duncan Edwards, Mark Jones, David Pegg, Tommy Taylor and Billy Whelan – and injured several more.[25][26] Reserve team manager Jimmy Murphy took over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries and the club's makeshift side reached the FA Cup final, which they lost to Bolton Wanderers. In recognition of the team's tragedy, UEFA invited the club to compete in the 1958–59 European Cup alongside eventual League champions Wolverhampton Wanderers. Despite approval from the FA, the Football League determined that the club should not enter the competition, since it had not qualified.[27][28] Busby rebuilt the team through the 1960s by signing players such as Denis Law and Pat Crerand, who combined with the next generation of youth players – including George Best – to win the FA Cup in 1963. The following season, they finished second in the league, then won the title in 1965 and 1967. In 1968, Manchester United became the first English (and second British) club to win the European Cup, beating Benfica 4–1 in the final[29] with a team that contained three European Footballers of the Year: Bobby Charlton, Denis Law and George Best.[30] Matt Busby resigned as manager in 1969 and was replaced by the reserve team coach, former Manchester United player Wilf McGuinness.[31] 1969–1986 Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1969–1986)

Bryan Robson was the captain of Manchester United for 12 years, longer than any other player.[32] Following an eighth-place finish in the 1969–70 season and a poor start to the 1970–71 season, Busby was persuaded to temporarily resume managerial duties, and McGuinness returned to his position as reserve team coach. In June 1971, Frank O'Farrell was appointed as manager, but lasted less than 18 months before being replaced by Tommy Docherty in December 1972.[33] Docherty saved Manchester United from relegation that season, only to see them relegated in 1974; by that time the trio of Best, Law, and Charlton had left the club.[29] The team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the FA Cup final in 1976, but were beaten by Southampton. They reached the final again in 1977, beating Liverpool 2–1. Docherty was dismissed shortly afterwards, following the revelation of his affair with the club physiotherapist's wife.[31][34] Dave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977. Despite major signings, including Joe Jordan, Gordon McQueen, Gary Bailey, and Ray Wilkins, the team failed to achieve any significant results; they finished in the top two in 1979–80 and lost to Arsenal in the 1979 FA Cup Final. Sexton was dismissed in 1981, even though the team won the last seven games under his direction.[35] He was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from West Bromwich Albion. Under Atkinson, Manchester United won the FA Cup twice in three years – in 1983 and 1985. In 1985–86, after 13 wins and two draws in its first 15 matches, the club was favourite to win the league, but finished in fourth place. The following season, with the club in danger of relegation by November, Atkinson was dismissed.[36] Ferguson years (1986–present) Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1986–present)

Alex Ferguson has been manager of Manchester United since November 1986. Alex Ferguson and his assistant Archie Knox arrived from Aberdeen on the day of Atkinson's dismissal,[37] and guided the club to an 11th-place finish in the league.[38] Despite a second-place finish in 1987–88, the club was back in 11th place the following season.[39] Reportedly on the verge of being dismissed, victory over Crystal Palace in the 1990 FA Cup Final replay (after a 3–3 draw) saved Ferguson's career.[40][41] The following season, Manchester United claimed its first Cup Winners' Cup title and competed in the 1991 UEFA Super Cup, beating European Cup holders Red Star Belgrade 1–0 in the final at Old Trafford. A second consecutive League Cup final appearance followed in 1992, in which the team beat Nottingham Forest 1–0 at Wembley.[36] In 1993, the club won its first league title since 1967, and a year later, for the first time since 1957, it won a second consecutive title – alongside the FA Cup – to complete the first "Double" in the club's history.[36]

Ryan Giggs is the most decorated player in English football history.[42] In the 1998–99 season, Manchester United became the first team to win the Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League – "The Treble" – in the same season.[43] Losing 1–0 going into injury time in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final, Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored late goals to claim a dramatic victory over Bayern Munich, in what is considered one of the greatest comebacks of all time.[44] The club also won the Intercontinental Cup after beating Palmeiras 1–0 in Tokyo.[45] Ferguson was subsequently knighted for his services to football.[46] Manchester United won the league again in the 1999–2000 and 2000–01 seasons. The team finished as runners-up in 2001–02, before regaining the title in 2002–03. They won the 2003–04 FA Cup, beating Millwall 3–0 in the final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.[47] In the 2005–06 season, Manchester United failed to qualify for the knockout phase of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in over a decade, but recovered to secure a second-place league finish and victory over Wigan Athletic in the 2006 Football League Cup Final. The club regained the Premier League in the 2006–07 and 2007–08 seasons, and completed the European double by beating Chelsea 6–5 on penalties in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final in Moscow's Luzhniki Stadium. Ryan Giggs made a record 759th appearance for the club in this game, overtaking previous record holder Bobby Charlton.[48] In December 2008, the club won the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup and followed this with the 2008–09 Football League Cup, and its third successive Premier League title.[49][50] That summer, Cristiano Ronaldo was sold to Real Madrid for a world record £80 million.[51] In 2010, Manchester United defeated Aston Villa 2–1 at Wembley to retain the League Cup, its first successful defence of a knockout cup competition.[52] After finishing as runner-up to Chelsea in the 2009–10 season, United achieved a record 19th league title in 2010–11, securing the championship with a 1–1 away draw against Blackburn Rovers on 14 May 2011.[53] Crest and colours

Manchester United badge in the 1960s The club crest is derived from the Manchester City Council coat of arms, although all that remains of it on the current crest is the ship in full sail.[54] The devil stems from the club's nickname "The Red Devils"; it was included on club programmes and scarves in the 1960s, and incorporated into the club crest in 1970, although the crest was not included on the chest of the shirt until 1971 (unless the team was playing in a Cup Final).[54] A photograph of the Newton Heath team, taken in 1892, is believed to show the players wearing red-and-white quartered jerseys and blue shorts.[55] Between 1894–96, the players wore distinctive green and gold jerseys[55] which were replaced in 1896 by white shirts, which were worn with blue shorts.[55] After its name change in 1902, the club colours were changed to red shirts, white shorts, and black socks, which has become the standard Manchester United home kit.[55] Very few changes were made to the kit until 1922 when the club adopted white shirts bearing a deep red "V" around the neck, similar to the shirt worn in the 1909 FA Cup Final. They remained part of their home kits until 1927.[55] In 1934, players sported cherry and white hooped shirts, but the following season the red shirt was recalled after the club's lowest ever league placing of 20th in the Second Division.[55] The black socks were changed to white from 1959 to 1965, where they were replaced with red socks up until 1971, when the club reverted to black. The current home kit is a red shirt with a white and black crew neck collar, worn with white shorts and black socks.[56] The Manchester United away strip has more often than not been a white shirt, black shorts and white socks, but there have been several exceptions. These include the navy blue shirt with silver horizontal pinstripes worn during the 1999–2000 season,[57] and the current away kit, which has a royal blue body and sleeves with hoops made of small midnight navy blue and black stripes, with black shorts and blue socks.[58] An all-grey away kit worn during the 1995–96 season was dropped after just five games because players claimed to have trouble finding their team-mates against the crowd.[59] In 2001, to celebrate 100 years as "Manchester United", a reversible white/gold away kit was released, although the actual match day shirts were not reversible.[60] The club's third kit is often all-blue, this was most recently the case during the 2008–09 season, to celebrate 40 years since it was worn for the club's first European Cup win in 1968.[61] Exceptions include blue-and-white striped shirts worn during the 1994–96 season, an all black kit worn during the Treble winning season, and white shirts with black-and-red horizontal pinstripes worn between 2003–05.[62] Grounds

Main articles: North Road, Bank Street, and Old Trafford Old Trafford Theatre of Dreams

Location Sir Matt Busby Way, Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, England Broke ground 1909 Opened 19 February 1910 Owner Manchester United Operator Manchester United Construction cost £90,000 (1909) Architect Archibald Leitch (1909) Capacity 75,811 seated[2] Tenants Manchester United (1910–present) Newton Heath initially played on a field on North Road, close to the railway yard; the original capacity was about 12,000, but club officials deemed the facilities inadequate for a club hoping to join The Football League.[63] Some expansion took place in 1887, and in 1891 Newton Heath used its minimal financial reserves to purchase two grandstands, each able to hold 1,000 spectators.[64] Although attendances were not recorded for many of the earliest matches at North Road, the highest documented attendance was approximately 15,000 for a First Division match against Sunderland on 4 March 1893.[65] A similar attendance was also recorded for a friendly match against Gorton Villa on 5 September 1889.[66] In June 1893, after the club was evicted from North Road by its owners, Manchester Deans and Canons, who felt it was inappropriate for the club to charge an entry fee to the ground, secretary A. H. Albut procured the use of the Bank Street ground in Clayton.[67] It initially had no stands, by the start of the 1893–94 season, two had been built; one spanning the full length of the pitch on one side and the other behind the goal at the "Bradford end". At the opposite end, the "Clayton end", the ground had been "built up, thousands thus being provided for".[67] Newton Heath's first league match at Bank Street was played against Burnley on 1 September 1893, when 10,000 people saw Alf Farman score a hat-trick, Newton Heath's only goals in a 3–2 win. The remaining stands were completed for the following league game against Nottingham Forest three weeks later.[67] In October 1895, before the visit of Manchester City, the club purchased a 2,000-capacity stand from the Broughton Rangers rugby league club, and put up another stand on the "reserved side" (as distinct from the "popular side"). However, weather restricted the attendance for the Manchester City match to just 12,000.[68] When the Bank Street ground was temporarily closed by bailiffs in 1902, club captain Harry Stafford raised enough money to pay for the club's next away game at Bristol City and found a temporary ground at Harpurhey for the next reserves game against Padiham.[69] Following financial investment, new club president J.H. Davies paid £500 for the erection of a new 1,000-seat stand at Bank Street.[70] Within four years, the stadium had cover on all four sides, as well as the ability to hold approximately 50,000 spectators, some of whom could watch from the viewing gallery atop the Main Stand.[70] However, following Manchester United's first league title in 1908 and the FA Cup a year later, it was decided that Bank Street was too restrictive for Davies' ambition;[70] in February 1909, six weeks before the club's first FA Cup title, Old Trafford was named as the home of Manchester United, following the purchase of land for around £60,000. Architect Archibald Leitch was given a budget of £30,000 for construction; original plans called for seating capacity of 100,000, though budget constraints forced a revision to 77,000. The building was constructed by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester. The stadium's record attendance was registered on 25 March 1939, when an FA Cup semi-final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town drew 76,962 spectators.[71] Bombing in the Second World War destroyed much of the stadium; the central tunnel in the South Stand was all that remained of that quarter. After the war, the club received compensation from the War Damage Commission in the amount of £22,278. While reconstruction took place, the team played its "home" games at Manchester City's Maine Road ground; Manchester United was charged £5,000 per year, plus a nominal percentage of gate receipts.[72] Later improvements included the addition of roofs, first to the Stretford End and then to the North and East Stands. The roofs were supported by pillars that obstructed many fans' views, and they were eventually replaced with a cantilevered structure. The Stretford End was the last stand to receive a cantilevered roof, completed in time for the 1993–94 season.[31] First used on 25 March 1957 and costing £40,000, four 180-foot (55 m) pylons were erected, each housing 54 individual floodlights. These were dismantled in 1987 and replaced by a lighting system embedded in the roof of each stand, which remains in use today.[73] The Taylor Report's requirement for an all-seater stadium lowered capacity at Old Trafford to around 44,000 by 1993. In 1995, the North Stand was redeveloped into three tiers, restoring capacity to approximately 55,000. At the end of the 1998–99 season, second tiers were added to the East and West Stands, raising capacity to around 67,000, and between July 2005 and May 2006, 8,000 more seats were added via second tiers in the north-west and north-east quadrants. Part of the new seating was used for the first time on 26 March 2006, when an attendance of 69,070 became a new Premier League record.[74] The record was pushed steadily upwards before reaching its peak on 31 March 2007, when 76,098 spectators saw Manchester United beat Blackburn Rovers 4–1, with just 114 seats (0.15 percent of the total capacity of 76,212) unoccupied.[75] In 2009, reorganisation of the seating resulted in a reduction of capacity by 255 to 75,957.[76][77] Manchester United has the third highest average attendance of European football clubs only behind FC Barcelona and Borussia Dortmund. Support

Manchester United is reputed to be the most popular football club in the world, with one of the highest average home attendance in Europe. [78] The club's worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club (MUSC), in at least 24 countries.[79] The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours. Accountancy firm and sports industry consultants Deloitte estimate that Manchester United has 75 million fans worldwide,[7] while other estimates put this figure closer to 333 million.[8] Supporters are represented by two independent bodies; the Independent Manchester United Supporters Association (IMUSA), which maintains close links to the club through the MUFC Fans Forum,[80] and the Manchester United Supporters' Trust (MUST). After the Glazer family's takeover in 2005, a group of fans formed a splinter club, F.C. United of Manchester. The West Stand of Old Trafford – the "Stretford End" – is the home end and the traditional source of the club's most vocal support.[81] Rivalries Main articles: Manchester derby, Liverpool F.C.–Manchester United F.C. rivalry, and Leeds United A.F.C.–Manchester United F.C. rivalry Manchester United has rivalries with Leeds United, Liverpool, and Manchester City, against whom they contest the Manchester derby.[82][83] The rivalry with Liverpool is rooted in competition between the cities during the Industrial Revolution when Manchester was famous for its textile industry while Liverpool was a major port.[84] The "Roses Rivalry" with Leeds stems from the Wars of the Roses, fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, with Manchester United representing Lancashire and Leeds representing Yorkshire.[85] Global brand

Turkish Airlines is an official sponsor of the club, as shown by a Boeing 737-800 logojet seen here at Atatürk International Airport in April 2011. Manchester United has been described as a global brand; a 2011 report by Brand Finance, valued the club's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £412 million – an increase of £39 million on the previous year, valuing it at £11 million more than the second best brand, Real Madrid – and gave the brand a strength rating of AAA (Extremely Strong).[86] In 2011, Manchester United was ranked first by Forbes magazine in its list of the ten most valuable sports team brands, valuing the Manchester United brand at $1.86 billion.[10] The club is currently ranked third in the Deloitte Football Money League (behind Real Madrid and Barcelona).[87] The core strength of Manchester United's global brand is often attributed to Matt Busby's rebuilding of the team and subsequent success following the Munich air disaster, which drew worldwide acclaim.[81] The "iconic" team included Bobby Charlton and Nobby Stiles (members of England's World Cup winning team), Denis Law and George Best. The attacking style of play adopted by this team (in contrast to the defensive-minded "catenaccio" approach favoured by the leading Italian teams of the era) "captured the imagination of the English footballing public".[88] Busby's team also became associated with the liberalisation of Western society during the 1960s; George Best, known as the "fifth Beatle" for his iconic haircut, was the first footballer to significantly develop an off-the-field media profile.[88] As the second English football club to float on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club raised significant capital, with which it further developed its commercial strategy. The club's focus on commercial and sporting success brought significant profits in an industry often characterised by chronic losses.[89] The strength of the Manchester United brand was bolstered by intense off-the-field media attention to individual players, most notably David Beckham (who quickly developed his own global brand). This attention often generates greater interest in on-the-field activities, and hence generates sponsorship opportunities – the value of which is driven by television exposure.[90] During his time with the club, Beckham's popularity across Asia was integral to the club's commercial success in that part of the world.[91] Because higher league placement results in a greater share of television rights, success on the field generates greater income for the club. Since the inception of the Premier League, Manchester United has received the largest share of the revenue generated from the BSkyB broadcasting deal.[92] Manchester United has also consistently enjoyed the highest commercial income of any English club; in 2005–06, the club's commercial arm generated £51 million, compared to £42.5 million at Chelsea, £39.3 million at Liverpool, £34 million at Arsenal and £27.9 million at Newcastle United. A key sponsorship relationship is with sportswear company Nike, who manage the club's merchandising operation as part of a £303 million 13-year partnership established in 2002.[93] Through Manchester United Finance and the club's membership scheme, One United, those with an affinity for the club can purchase a range of branded goods and services. Additionally, Manchester United-branded media services – such as the club's dedicated television channel, MUTV – have allowed the club to expand its fan base to those beyond the reach of its Old Trafford stadium.[7] Sponsorship Period Kit manufacturer Shirt sponsor 1945–1975 Umbro none 1975–1980 Admiral 1980–1982 Adidas 1982–1992 Sharp Electronics 1992–2000 Umbro 2000–2002 Vodafone 2002–2006 Nike 2006–2010 AIG 2010– Aon In an initial five-year deal worth £500,000, Sharp Electronics became the club's first shirt sponsor at the beginning of the 1982–83 season, a relationship that lasted until the end of the 1999–2000 season, when Vodafone agreed a four-year, £30 million deal.[94] Vodafone agreed to pay £36 million to extend the deal by four years, but after two seasons triggered a break clause in order to concentrate on its sponsorship of the Champions League.[94] To commence at the start of the 2006–07 season, American insurance corporation AIG agreed a four-year £56.5 million deal which in September 2006 became the most valuable in the world.[95][96] At the beginning of the 2010–11 season, American reinsurance company Aon became the club's principal sponsor in a four-year deal reputed to be worth approximately £80 million, making it the most lucrative shirt sponsorship deal in football history.[97] Manchester United announced their first training kit sponsor in August 2011, agreeing a four-year deal with DHL reported to be worth £40 million; it is believed to be the first instance of training kit sponsorship in English football.[98][99] The club's first kit manufacturer was Umbro, until a five-year deal was agreed with Admiral Sportswear in 1975.[100] Adidas received the contract in 1980,[101] before Umbro started a second spell in 1992.[102] Umbro's sponsorship lasted for ten years, followed by Nike's record-breaking £302.9 million deal that will last until 2015; 3.8 million replica shirts were sold in the first 22 months with the company.[103][104] In addition to Nike and Aon, the club also has several lower-level "platinum" sponsors, including Audi and Budweiser.[105] Ownership and finances

See also: Glazer ownership of Manchester United Originally funded by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, the club became a limited company in 1892 and sold shares to local supporters for £1 via an application form.[15] In 1902, majority ownership passed to the four local businessmen who invested £500 to save the club from bankruptcy, including future club president J.H Davies.[15] After his death in 1927, the club faced bankruptcy yet again, but was saved in December 1931 by James W. Gibson, who assumed control of the club after investing £2,000.[19] Gibson promoted his son, Alan, to the board in 1948,[106] but died three years later; the Gibson family retained ownership of the club,[107] but the position of chairman passed to former player Harold Hardman.[108] Promoted to the board a few days after the Munich air disaster, Louis Edwards, a friend of Matt Busby, began acquiring shares in the club; for an investment of approximately £40,000, he accumulated a 54 percent shareholding and took control in January 1964.[109] When Lillian Gibson died in January 1971, her shares passed to Alan Gibson who sold a percentage of his shares to Louis Edwards' son, Martin in 1978; Martin Edwards went on to become chairman upon his father's death in 1980.[110] Media tycoon Robert Maxwell attempted to buy the club in 1984, but did not meet Edwards' asking price.[110] In 1989, chairman Martin Edwards attempted to sell the club to Michael Knighton for £20 million, but the sale fell through and Knighton joined the Board of Directors instead.[110] Manchester United was floated on the stock market in June 1991 (raising £6.7 million),[111] and received yet another takeover bid in 1998, this time from Rupert Murdoch's British Sky Broadcasting Corporation. This resulted in the formation of Shareholders United Against Murdoch – now the Manchester United Supporters' Trust – who encouraged supporters to buy shares in the club in an attempt to block any hostile takeover. The Manchester United board accepted a £623 million offer,[112] but the takeover was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission at the final hurdle in April 1999.[113] A few years later, a power struggle emerged between the club's manager, Alex Ferguson, and his horse-racing partners, John Magnier and J. P. McManus, who had gradually become the majority shareholders. In a dispute that stemmed from contested ownership of the horse Rock of Gibraltar, Magnier and McManus attempted to have Ferguson removed from his position as manager, and the board responded by approaching investors to attempt to reduce the Irishmen's majority.[114] In May 2005, Malcolm Glazer purchased the 28.7 percent stake held by McManus and Magnier, thus acquiring a controlling interest through his investment vehicle Red Football Ltd in a highly leveraged takeover valuing the club at approximately £800 million (then approx. $1.5 billion).[115][116] In July 2006, the club announced a £660 million debt refinancing package, resulting in a 30 percent reduction in annual interest payments to £62 million a year.[117][118] In January 2010, with debts of £716.5 million ($1.17 billion),[119] Manchester United further refinanced through a bond issue worth £504 million, enabling them to pay off most of the £509 million owed to international banks.[120] The annual interest payable on the bonds – which mature on 1 February 2017 – is approximately £45 million per annum.[121] Despite restructuring, the club's debt prompted protests from fans on 23 January 2010, at Old Trafford and the club's Trafford Training Centre.[122][123] Supporter groups encouraged match-going fans to wear green and gold, the colours of Newton Heath. On 30 January, reports emerged that the Manchester United Supporters' Trust had held meetings with a group of wealthy fans, dubbed the "Red Knights", with plans to buying out the Glazers' controlling interest.[124] In August 2011, the Glazers were believed to have approached Credit Suisse in preparation for a $1 billion (approx. £600 million) initial public offering (IPO) on the Singapore stock exchange that would value the club at more than £2 billion.[125] Players

First-team squad As of 8 January 2012.[126] Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. No. Position Player 1 GK David de Gea 3 DF Patrice Evra (vice-captain) 4 DF Phil Jones 5 DF Rio Ferdinand 6 DF Jonny Evans 7 FW Michael Owen 8 MF Anderson 9 FW Dimitar Berbatov 10 FW Wayne Rooney 11 MF Ryan Giggs 12 DF Chris Smalling 13 MF Park Ji-Sung 14 FW Javier Hernández 15 DF Nemanja Vidić (captain) 16 MF Michael Carrick 17 MF Nani No. Position Player 18 MF Ashley Young 19 FW Danny Welbeck 20 DF Fábio 21 DF Rafael 22 MF Paul Scholes 23 MF Tom Cleverley 24 MF Darren Fletcher 25 MF Antonio Valencia 30 DF Ritchie De Laet 34 GK Anders Lindegaard 40 GK Ben Amos 42 MF Paul Pogba 46 MF Ryan Tunnicliffe 48 FW Will Keane 50 GK Sam Johnstone 51 DF Ezekiel Fryers On loan Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. No. Position Player 27 FW Federico Macheda (at Queens Park Rangers until 30 June 2012)[127] 29 GK Tomasz Kuszczak (at Watford until 30 June 2012)[128] 33 FW Bébé (at Beşiktaş until 30 June 2012)[129] No. Position Player 37 MF Robbie Brady (at Hull City until 30 June 2012)[130] 41 FW Joshua King (at Hull City until 30 June 2012)[131] 47 MF Oliver Norwood (at Coventry City until 30 June 2012)[132] Reserves and academy Further information: Manchester United F.C. Reserves and Academy Former players Further information: List of Manchester United F.C. players and Category:Manchester United F.C. players Club captains Further information: List of Manchester United F.C. players#Club captains Player records Further information: List of Manchester United F.C. records and statistics Club officials

Owner: Glazer family via Red Football Shareholder Limited[133] Honorary president: Martin Edwards[134] Manchester United Limited Co-chairmen: Joel Glazer & Avram Glazer[135] Chief executive: David Gill[135] Chief operating officer: Michael Bolingbroke[135] Commercial director: Richard Arnold[136] Chief of Staff: Ed Woodward[137] Non-executive directors: Bryan Glazer, Kevin Glazer, Edward Glazer & Darcie Glazer[135] Manchester United Football Club Directors: David Gill, Michael Edelson, Sir Bobby Charlton, Maurice Watkins[137] Club secretary: John Alexander[138] Global ambassador: Bryan Robson[139] Coaching and medical staff Manager: Sir Alex Ferguson[140] Assistant manager: Mike Phelan[141] First team coach: René Meulensteen[142] Goalkeeping coach: Eric Steele[143] Fitness coach: Tony Strudwick[144] Reserve team manager: Warren Joyce[145] Managerial history Main article: List of Manchester United F.C. managers Dates[146] Name Notes 1878–1892 Unknown 1892–1900 A. H. Albut 1900–1903 James West 1903–1912 Ernest Mangnall 1912–1914 John Bentley 1914–1922 Jack Robson 1922–1926 John Chapman First manager from outside England 1926–1927 Lal Hilditch 1927–1931 Herbert Bamlett 1931–1932 Walter Crickmer 1932–1937 Scott Duncan 1937–1945 Walter Crickmer 1945–1969 Matt Busby 1969–1970 Wilf McGuinness 1970–1971 Matt Busby 1971–1972 Frank O'Farrell First manager from outside the United Kingdom 1972–1977 Tommy Docherty 1977–1981 Dave Sexton 1981–1986 Ron Atkinson 1986–present Alex Ferguson Both most honours won and longest serving in Manchester United's history[140] Honours

Manchester United's first trophy was the Manchester Cup, which it won as Newton Heath in 1886.[147] In 1908, the club won its first league title, and won the FA Cup for the first time the following year. Manchester United won the most trophies in the 1990s; five league titles, four FA Cups, one League Cup, five Charity Shields (one shared), one UEFA Champions League, one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, one UEFA Super Cup and one Intercontinental Cup. The club currently holds the record for most top-division titles (19), the most FA Cups (11), and the most FA Cup Final appearances (18).[148] Manchester United holds the record for the most Premier League titles (12), and was the first English team to win the European Cup in 1968. The club's most recent trophy came in August 2011 with the 2011 FA Community Shield title. The only major honour that Manchester United has never won is the UEFA Europa League,[149] although the team reached the quarter-finals in 1984–85 and the semi-finals of the competition's precursor tournament, the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, in 1964–65.[150][151] Domestic League First Division[nb 3] (until 1992) and Premier League:[nb 3] 19 1907–08, 1910–11, 1951–52, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11 Second Division:[nb 3] 2 1935–36, 1974–75 Cups FA Cup: 11 1908–09, 1947–48, 1962–63, 1976–77, 1982–83, 1984–85, 1989–90, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99, 2003–04 League Cup: 4 1991–92, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10 FA Charity/Community Shield: 19 (15 outright, 4 shared) 1908, 1911, 1952, 1956, 1957, 1965*, 1967*, 1977*, 1983, 1990*, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011 (* shared) European European Cup/UEFA Champions League: 3 1967–68, 1998–99, 2007–08 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1 1990–91 UEFA Super Cup: 1 1991 Worldwide Intercontinental Cup: 1 1999 FIFA Club World Cup: 1 2008 Doubles and Trebles Doubles: League and FA Cup: 3 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99 (as part of the Treble) League and League Cup: 1 2008–09 European Double (League and European Cup): 2 1998–99 (as part of the Treble), 2007–08 "The Treble" (League, FA Cup and European Cup): 1 1998–99 Especially short competitions such as the Charity/Community Shield, Intercontinental Cup (now defunct), FIFA Club World Cup or UEFA Super Cup are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble.[152] See also

Book: Manchester United F.C. Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Notes

Footnotes ^ UK CPI inflation numbers based on data available from Lawrence H. Officer (2010) "What Were the UK Earnings and Prices Then?" MeasuringWorth. ^ Sources are divided on the exact date of the meeting and subsequent name change. Whilst official club sources claim that it occurred on 26 April, the meeting was reported by the Manchester Evening Chronicle in its 25 April edition, suggesting it was indeed on 24 April. ^ a b c Upon its formation in 1992, the Premier League became the top tier of English football; the First and Second Divisions then became the second and third tiers, respectively. The First Division is now known as the Football League Championship and the Second Division is now known as Football League One. Citations ^ "Manchester United Football Club". premierleague.com. Premier League. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ a b "Manchester United". premierleague.com. Premier League. Retrieved 30 November 2011. ^ Stewart, Rob (1 October 2009). "Sir Alex Ferguson successful because he was given time, says Steve Bruce". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). Retrieved 11 May 2011. ^ Northcroft, Jonathan (5 November 2006). "20 glorious years, 20 key decisions". The Sunday Times (London: Times Newspapers). Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ "Manchester United win 11th FA Cup". CBC Sports (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation). 22 May 2004. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Gibson, Owen (2 March 2010). "Manchester United fall behind Barcelona on Deloitte rich list". The Guardian (London: Guardian News and Media). Retrieved 6 April 2010. ^ a b c Hamil (2008), p. 126. ^ a b Cass, Bob (15 December 2007). "United moving down south as fanbase reaches 333 million". Daily Mail (London: Associated Newspapers). Retrieved 20 June 2010. ^ Schwartz, Peter J. (18 May 2010). "The Most Valuable Sports Team Brands". Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 20 June 2010. ^ a b Patriots, Red Sox land on Forbes most valuable list Boston Globe ^ "Glazer gets 98% of Man Utd shares". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 23 June 2005. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ a b c Barnes et al. (2001), p. 8. ^ James (2008), p. 66. ^ Tyrrell & Meek (1996), p. 99. ^ a b c Barnes et al. (2001), p. 9. ^ James (2008), p. 92. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), p. 118. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), p. 11. ^ a b c Barnes et al. (2001), p. 12. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), p. 13. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), p. 10. ^ Murphy (2006), p. 71. ^ Glanville, Brian (27 April 2005). "The great Chelsea surrender". The Times (London: Times Newspapers). Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), pp. 14–15. ^ "1958: United players killed in air disaster". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 6 February 1958. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), pp. 16–17. ^ White, Jim (2008), p. 136. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), p. 17. ^ a b Barnes et al. 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BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 16 May 2009. ^ Ogden, Mark (12 June 2009). "Cristiano Ronaldo transfer: World-record deal shows football is booming, says Sepp Blatter". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). Retrieved 9 January 2011. ^ "Rooney the hero as United overcome Villa". ESPNsoccernet. 28 February 2010. Retrieved 2 April 2010. ^ Stone, Simon (14 May 2011). "Manchester United clinch record 19th english title". The Independent (London: Independent Print). Retrieved 14 May 2011. ^ a b Barnes et al. (2001), p. 49. ^ a b c d e f Barnes et al. (2001), p. 48. ^ "Manchester United new home kit for season 2011/12". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 24 May 2011. p. 1. Retrieved 1 November 2011. ^ Devlin (2005), p. 157. ^ "Reds unveil new away kit". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 15 July 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2011. ^ "13.04.96 Manchester United's grey day at The Dell". Independent. 15 April 2006. 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"Manchester United top of the 25 best supported clubs in Europe". The Independent (London: Independent Print). Retrieved 6 November 2009. ^ "Local Supporters Clubs". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ "Fans' Forum". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ a b Barnes et al. (2001), p. 52. ^ Smith, Martin (15 April 2008). "Bitter rivals do battle". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Stone, Simon (16 September 2005). "Giggs: Liverpool our biggest test". Manchester Evening News. Retrieved 31 March 2010. ^ Rohrer, Finlo (21 August 2007). "Scouse v Manc". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Dunning (1999), p. 151. ^ "Top 30 Football Club Brands" (PDF). Brand Finance. September 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011. ^ "Real Madrid becomes the first sports team in the world to generate €400m in revenues as it tops Deloitte Football Money League". Deloitte. 2 March 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2010. ^ a b Hamil (2008), p. 116. ^ Hamil (2008), p. 124. ^ Hamil (2008), p. 121. ^ "Beckham fever grips Japan". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). 18 June 2003. Retrieved 20 June 2010. ^ Hamil (2008), p. 120. ^ Hamil (2008), p. 122. ^ a b Ducker, James (4 June 2009). "Manchester United show financial muscle after signing record £80m shirt contract". The Times (London: Times Newspapers). Retrieved 9 July 2010. ^ "Oilinvest to renegotiate Juventus sponsorship". SportBusiness (SBG Companies). 7 September 2006. Retrieved 28 May 2007. ^ "Man Utd sign £56m AIG shirt deal". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 6 April 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Smith, Ben; Ducker, James (3 June 2009). "Manchester United announce £80 million sponsorship deal with Aon". The Times (London: Times Newspapers). Retrieved 9 July 2010. ^ "DHL delivers new shirt deal". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 22 August 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2011. ^ "Manchester United unveils two new commercial deals". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 22 August 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2011. ^ "Admiral: Heritage". Admiral Sportswear. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009. Retrieved 11 July 2010. ^ Devlin (2005), p. 149. ^ Devlin (2005), p. 148. ^ Hamil (2008), p. 127. ^ "Man Utd in £300m Nike deal". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 3 November 2000. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Wachman, Richard (24 April 2010). "Manchester United fans call on corporate sponsors to back fight against Glazers". The Guardian (London: Guardian News and Media). Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Crick & Smith (1990), p. 181. ^ Crick & Smith (1990), p. 92. ^ White, Jim (2008), p. 92. ^ Dobson & Goddard (2004), p. 190. ^ a b c "1989: Man U sold in record takeover deal". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 18 August 1989. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Dobson & Goddard (2004), p. 191. ^ Bose (2007), p. 157. ^ Bose (2007), p. 175. ^ Bose (2007), pp. 234–235. ^ "Glazer Man Utd stake exceeds 75%". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 16 May 2005. Retrieved 11 August 2007. ^ "Manchester United's new owner". CBC Sports (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation). 22 June 2005. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ "Glazers Tighten Grip On United With Debt Refinancing". The Political Economy of Football. 8 July 2006. Retrieved 11 August 2008. ^ "Manchester United reveal refinancing plans". RTÉ (Raidió Teilifís Éireann). 18 July 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ "Manchester United debt hits £716m". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 20 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "Manchester United to raise £500m". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 11 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ Wilson, Bill (22 January 2010). "Manchester United raise £504m in bond issue". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ Hughes, Ian (23 January 2010). "Man Utd 4–0 Hull". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ "Prime Minister Gordon Brown warns football over debts". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). 25 January 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2010. ^ Hassan, Nabil; Roan, Dan (30 January 2010). "Wealthy Man Utd fans approach broker about takeover". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 4 March 2010. ^ Gibson, Owen (16 August 2011). "Manchester United eyes a partial flotation on Singapore stock exchange". The Guardian (London: Guardian News and Media). Retrieved 17 August 2011. ^ "First Team". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 9 August 2011. ^ "Macheda joins QPR on loan". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 2 January 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2012. ^ "Loan move for Kuszczak". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 21 February 2012. Retrieved 21 February 2012. ^ Coppack, Nick (16 June 2011). "Besiktas land Bebe on loan". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 17 June 2011. ^ "Manchester United's Robbie Brady to stay at Hull City". BBC Sport (British Broadcasting Corporation). 5 January 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2012. ^ "King's Hull switch confirmed". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 16 January 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2012. ^ "NEWS: Norwood signs on loan". CCFC.co.uk (Coventry City). 31 January 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2012. ^ Red Football Shareholder Limited: Group of companies' accounts made up to 30 June 2009. Downloaded from Companies House UK ^ Gardner, Neil (8 October 2009). "Martin Edwards voices concerns over Manchester United's future". The Times (London: Times Newspapers). Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ a b c d "Reds appoint new director". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 21 February 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ "Manchester United set to announce massive profit". The Times (London: Times Newspapers). 7 January 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ a b "Who are the directors of Manchester United?". ManUtd.com. Manchester United. Retrieved 17 July 2010. ^ "Reds' new Club Secretary". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). 20 December 2009. Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ "Manchester United appoint Bryan Robson as global ambassador". The Times (London: Times Newspapers). 20 March 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ a b "Managers: Sir Alex Ferguson". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ "Coaching Staff: Mike Phelan". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ "Coaching Staff: René Meulensteen". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ "Coaching Staff: Eric Steele". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ "Coaching Staff: Richard Hawkins". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ Bartram, Steve (16 December 2010). "Res: United 5 N'wcstle 1". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). p. 3. Retrieved 10 March 2011. ^ Barnes et al. (2001), pp. 54–57. ^ Shury & Landamore (2005), p. 8. ^ "Cup Final Results". TheFA.com. The Football Association. Retrieved 22 January 2011. ^ "Trophy Room". ManUtd.com (Manchester United). Retrieved 3 December 2010. ^ Ross, James (9 January 2008). "European Competitions 1984–85". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 24 June 2010. ^ Zea, Antonio; Haisma, Marcel (9 January 2008). "Fairs' Cup 1964–65". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 15 February 2009. ^ Rice, Simon (20 May 2010). "Treble treble: The teams that won the treble". The Independent (London: Independent Print). Retrieved 14 July 2010. Further reading

Andrews, David L., ed. (2004). Manchester United: A Thematic Study. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33333-4. Barnes, Justyn; Bostock, Adam; Butler, Cliff; Ferguson, Jim; Meek, David; Mitten, Andy; Pilger, Sam; Taylor, Frank OBE et al (2001) [1998]. The Official Manchester United Illustrated Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). London: Manchester United Books. ISBN 0-233-99964-7. Bose, Mihir (2007). Manchester Disunited: Trouble and Takeover at the World's Richest Football Club. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 1-84513-121-5. Crick, Michael; Smith, David (1990). Manchester United – The Betrayal of a Legend. London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-31440-8. Devlin, John (2005). True Colours: Football Kits from 1980 to the Present Day. London: A & C Black. ISBN 0-7136-7389-3. Dobson, Stephen; Goddard, John (2004). "Ownership and Finance of Professional Soccer in England and Europe". In Fort, Rodney; Fizel, John. International Sports Economics Comparisons. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-98032-4. Dunning, Eric (1999). Sport Matters: Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence and Civilisation. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09378-1. Hamil, Sean (2008). "Case 9: Manchester United: the Commercial Development of a Global Football Brand". In Chadwick, Simon; Arth, Dave. International Cases in the Business of Sport. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-8543-6. Inglis, Simon (1996) [1985]. Football Grounds of Britain (3rd ed.). London: CollinsWillow. ISBN 0-00-218426-5. James, Gary (2008). Manchester: A Football History. Halifax: James Ward. ISBN 978-0-9558127-0-5. Morgan, Steve (March 2010). McLeish, Ian. ed. "Design for life". Inside United (Haymarket Network) (212). ISSN 1749-6497. Murphy, Alex (2006). The Official Illustrated History of Manchester United. London: Orion Books. ISBN 0-7528-7603-1. Rollin, Glenda; Rollin, Jack. Sky Sports Football Yearbook 2008–2009. London: Headline Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-7553-1820-9. Shury, Alan; Landamore, Brian (2005). The Definitive Newton Heath F.C. SoccerData. ISBN 1-899468-16-1. Tyrrell, Tom; Meek, David (1996) [1988]. The Hamlyn Illustrated History of Manchester United 1878–1996 (5th ed.). London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-59074-7. White, Jim (2008). Manchester United: The Biography. London: Sphere. ISBN 978-1-84744-088-4. White, John (2007) [2005]. The United Miscellany (2nd ed.). London: Carlton Books. ISBN 978-1-84442-745-1. External links

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Horseland is an American animated series produced by DIC Entertainment. It is an animated drama and comic mischief program following events in the lives of a group of children riding at Horseland, an equestrian school and stables. Their adventures include riding, and raising and entering their horses in competitions. The show premiered on September 16, 2006 as part of CBS's new Saturday morning cartoon block, KOL Secret Slumber Party on CBS (now Cookie Jar TV). Concurrent with the series, the online virtual pet game that it was based upon was updated to complement the show by launching a new "Junior version" of the game based on the program and featuring its various characters and locations. After three seasons, the show's original run ended on CBS on September 19, 2009. Reruns of Horseland then aired nationwide on the digital subchannel This TV; two episodes aired each weekend until September, 2010.[1] As of February 5, 2011 Horseland is again part of Cookie Jar TV on CBS. Contents [hide] 1 Characters 1.1 Sarah Whitney and Scarlet 1.2 Alma Rodriguez and Button 1.3 Molly Washington and Calypso 1.4 Chloe Stilton and Chili 1.5 Zoey Stilton and Pepper 1.6 Bailey Handler and Aztec 1.7 Will Taggert and Jimber 1.8 Shep 1.9 Teeny 1.10 Angora 2 Secondary characters 2.1 Simbala and Ranak 2.2 Jesse Golden and Buddy 2.3 Alexander Buglick and Bucephalus 2.4 Mary Whitney and Prince 2.5 Talia Bentley and Kisses 2.6 Chase Whitney and Wonder 2.7 Nani Cloud and Sunburst 3 Other characters 3.1 Jasmine and Amber 3.2 Linnea, Alexia and Windy 3.3 Competitors 3.4 Diablo 3.5 Puma 3.6 Wild Horses 3.7 River 3.8 Buttercup 3.9 Cream and Sugar 3.10 Misc. Animals 4 Cast 5 Episode guide 5.1 Season One: 2006 5.2 Season Two: 2007 5.3 Season Three: 2008 6 DVD release 7 See also 8 References 9 External links [edit]Characters

The characters of Horseland are usually limited to the group of kids who frequent the stable. However, some episodes (especially those which involve travelling), introduce onetime characters as a plot device, or focus on equine-centered dramas. Notably, nearly every character has a horse counterpart. [edit]Sarah Whitney and Scarlet Sarah is a twelve-year-old girl who likes to make friends. She often gets emotional, but is very friendly and loves to encourage others to do their best and have fun. She comes from a rich family, but does not consider herself better than others because of it. Sarah has blonde wavy hair with bleached highlights and light blue eyes. She also has silver hoop earrings with silver studs in her ears. Sarah's shown to wear a red riding jacket with a matching red necktie in most episodes. She has been seen in younger ages and different hairstyles in flashbacks. Sarah's horse is Scarlet, a purebred Arabian mare who has a long, black mane and tail with red highlights. Scarlet is fearless, level-headed, and regal, but at times can be moody and prefer to be left alone. She is patient and loving, much like her owner, and is great with the other kids. Her symbol is a red crown representing loyalty. [edit]Alma Rodriguez and Button Alma is twelve years old and comes from a tight-knit Hispanic family. Her father Jorge has worked as the manager of the stable at Horseland for over ten years. A lover of books, Alma seems to take every opportunity to read. She has a penpal named Alexander, who seems to have romantic feelings for her. Alma's shown to wear a green riding vest on top of a white long-sleeved shirt in most episodes. Alma's horse is Button, a black-and-white Pinto mare with a wavy white mane and tail with green highlights. Button is teasing and amiable, loving to play jokes on her friends and owner. When it all comes down to it, though, Button can be serious-minded, reliable, and very skilled in show jumping. Her symbol is a green four-leaf-clover representing luck. [edit]Molly Washington and Calypso Molly is an eleven year old African American girl who often deals with life's problems through humor. She is very funny, charismatic, and a free spirit. She makes fun of herself and, at times, her friends, which causes them to get annoyed at the fact that she doesn't seem to take much seriously. At times, she causes major problems at Horseland and is an immature girl occasionally; however, Molly can become serious and rides a horse just as well as the others when her friends are counting on her. She is good at Western riding with Calypso and the only one to consistently wear her hair in a ponytail. Molly's shown to wear a pink riding jumper. Molly's horse is Calypso, a brown Appaloosa mare with a flaxen mane and tail with pink highlights. She is amiable, laid back, affectionate, and a little slow. But when she learns something once, she's learned it for life. She loves her friends and rider dearly, and is particularly good friends with Button. She also has a noticeable Jamaican accent. Her symbol is a pink heart representing love. [edit]Chloe Stilton and Chili Chloe is twelve years old and quite a confident young girl. She comes from a wealthy family and is a bit self-centered but sweet, liking to let other people know of her talents. She has an unrequited crush on Bailey, and would stop at nothing to impress him. She is especially fond of clothes and makeup, and loves to look great when she rides. Though Chloe is competitive with her sister, Zoey, they still support each other when its important. Chloe has strawberry-blonde hair and green eyes. She is shown to wear a light purple jumper and a purple headband. Chloe's horse is Chili, a light grey Dutch Warmblood stallion with light purple highlights. Chili shares Chloe's confidence to the point that he feels he is the most talented horse at Horseland, though he often feels upstaged and unappreciated by his showy rider. Though he and Aztec frequently disagree with each other, they don't let it ruin their friendship. Both Chili and his rider are talented in dressage. His symbol is a purple diamond representing discipline. [edit]Zoey Stilton and Pepper Zoey, twelve years old and the younger of the Stilton twins, takes a more sneaky approach with her competitiveness, and is into fashion and makeup. She is talented in cross country, and shares her sister's crush on Bailey. She is competitive with her sister Chloe, though they still support each other when necessary. Although Zoey can be shallow and rude, she can also be considerate and nice. Zoey has red hair and green eyes and is shown to wear a light blue short-sleeved top. Zoey's horse, Pepper, is a dark grey Dutch Warmblood mare with light blue highlights and a wavy tail. Pepper is quick-tempered and selfish, sporting a large ego and a confidence to match. While she loves her rider and is good friends with Chili, she isn't on such good terms with the other horses, but they all still remain friends. Like Zoey, Pepper is snarky, spirited, and loves to compete. Her symbol is a light blue crescent moon representing fate. [edit]Bailey Handler and Aztec Bailey is the twelve-year-old son of the Horseland owners. He often takes risks and gambles without considering the consequences of his actions. He loves horses and animals, and insists that they be treated with kindness and gentleness. Bailey has a dark brown mullet and dark blue eyes. Bailey's shown to wear a dark blue long sleeved shirt which he rolls his sleeves up. In the first two seasons, he talks like a preteen boy and in season three, he talks like a teenage boy because he's thirteen in season three. Bailey's horse is Aztec, a brown Kiger mustang with dark blue highlights. He frequently acts grumpy and nonchalant, but he does genuinely care about his friends and the other animals. He is often protective of his mare friends, much to their chagrin, and has shown great courage and leadership skills. His symbol is a dark blue lightning bolt representing strength. [edit]Will Taggert and Jimber Will is fifteen years old, relaxed, and good-looking, and is often put in charge of the ranch while Bailey's parents are away. He is Bailey's cousin and has lived with Bailey's family ever since he was a little boy. Mature and insightful, he often acts as an adult figure to the rest of the kids. He loves to listen to country music, ride horses, is great at horse riding; Western and English. He has blonde hair and blue eyes. He's shown to wear a black short-sleeved shirt with a horseshoe pendant around his neck. In the episode 'The Secret', it was also revealed that he has dyslexia. Will's horse is Jimber, a powerful Palomino stallion with black highlights. Similar to Will, he has a commanding presence among the others at Horseland, and worked as a ranch horse before coming to the stable. He's a bit older in years in comparison to the other horses, but is dependable and wise. His symbol is a black star representing passion. [edit]Shep Shep is a male collie, and acts as the leader of all non-horse animals at Horseland. He is a very loyal ranch dog and always helps the horses in times of trouble. He is often the voice of reason for Teeny and Angora, and, to illustrate a moral or lesson, often relates stories to Teeny (the episodes are actually flashbacks to previous events). His owner is Bailey, and Shep has been with him since puphood. He's also known to break the fourth wall. [edit]Teeny Teeny is a young, chubby black-and-white pig who wears a pink ribbon on her tail. She displays an innocent, naive personality, and often becomes anxious over relatively small situations. Shep usually acts as a friend and mentor to Teeny, in contrast to Angora, who frequently teases her. She adores her food (and eating in general). [edit]Angora Angora is a gray, long-haired cat with a long bang, a long white chest tuft, green eyes and a pink collar with gold pendant. She is often dismissive of other animals, and feels that she deserves better treatment than anyone else. A running gag in the series involves her love of trouble (and hatred of peace) at Horseland. However, she shows genuine concern whenever Shep and Teeny are in true danger. Her favorite people at the stables are Chloe and Zoey because they are so much like her. [edit]Secondary characters

[edit]Simbala and Ranak Simbala is an Indian girl who meets the Horseland gang on a trip to France in the episode "International Sarah". She is tends to say "yuk", thoughtful. She is proud of her culture, and wears traditional dress and a bindi. Her father knows Sarah's father, and the two girls become fast friends after falling into an underground cave. She loves riding, fresh fruit, and dental floss. Simbala's horse is Ranak, a spirited black stallion with a white face who hates plane rides, but enjoys sugar cubes and being outdoors. After initially irritating the other horses with his worried whinnying, he apologizes and becomes good friends with them. He also has an Arabian accent. His color is dark blue. [edit]Jesse Golden and Buddy Jesse is a boy who visits Horseland while his parents' ranch, Golden Corral Ranch, is being remodeled. He appears in the episode "Bailey's New Friend." Like Bailey, he enjoys sports, taking care of his horse, talking, and is a bit of a dare devil. Both Molly and Alma think that he's a "cutie", but Zoey and Chloe think he's "hot". Jesse's horse is Buddy, is a black, strong, Rocky Mountain Horse. He is brave, headstrong, and misses his home while away. His color is dark turquoise. [edit]Alexander Buglick and Bucephalus Alexander is Alma's pen pal, seen in the episode "First Love". While his letters to her made him seem like a wealthy champion rider, an intentional facade meant to impress her, he really only rides for fun, and is rather timid. His parents are the proprietors of a traveling circus. However, he admires Alma and her riding abilities, and shares her love of reading. He likes to compare himself with the great Macedonian general, Alexander the Great. His horse is a kind, modest, black stallion named Bucephalus, in honor of Alexander the Great's famous steed. He performs in the circus and enjoys his life, despite its lack of glamour. His color is maroon. [edit]Mary Whitney and Prince Mary is Sarah's cousin, a humorous, independent girl who doesn't let the fact that she is blind get in her way. Mary appears in the episode "A True Gift." She has a clever comeback for most insults that Zoey throws at her, and dislikes it when her friends are overly patronizing. She loves horses and riding, especially outdoors. Mary's horse is Prince, a white Thoroughbred male who is rumored to be the fastest horse ever to come to Horseland, a 'fact' that riles Scarlet. Sarah temporarily rode him in Scarlet's place in order to make sure that he was a good enough mount for Mary. He also has a wavy mane and tail. His color is sky blue. [edit]Talia Bentley and Kisses Talia is a talented but mean-spirited girl who is both confident and competitive. She appears in the episode "Changing Spots." She is the premier show jumper at Stanhope Academy, Horseland's biggest rival. She is Alma's arch-nemesis, and the two show special animosity towards each other after they get in a fight about who deserves to win an upcoming competition. Talia's horse is Kisses, a beautiful Cremello mare, although it is assumed that she is a purebred. She is an excellent show jumper, but is never given a chance to speak to any of the other horses. Her highlight color is light pink. [edit]Chase Whitney and Wonder Chase is Sarah's cousin who comes to visit in the episode 'The Secret.' He is dyslexic, a fact which he tries to hide. Chloe and Zoey thought he was Sarah's boyfriend! Chase has light brown hair and blue eyes. His horse Wonder is a dark bay Anglo-Arabian stallion. Wonder never talks to any of the horses in the episode. His color is forest green. [edit]Nani Cloud and Sunburst Nani is an eleven-year-old Native American girl who appears in multiple episodes during season three. She is very defensive of her heritage, but deeper aspects of her personality are yet to be seen. She enjoys nature. Nani has black hair and hazel eyes. For the rest of the third season she is quick to be defensive with Zoey and Chloe and, sometimes, even Molly. Nani's shown to wear light yellow for important events. She casually wears light blue. Nani's horse is Sunburst, a light-colored American Paint Horse with yellow highlights. He prefers to be ridden bareback, and dislikes saddles. At first he starts out on bad terms with Pepper, although the two eventually become friends. He has a single little braid under his mane and his icon is a yellow sun. [edit]Other characters

[edit]Jasmine and Amber Jasmine and Amber are two of Molly's close friends from the city. Both of the girls are confident, playful, and loyal friends of Molly. Neither of them attend Horseland, but do express an interest in horseback riding. Despite frequently teasing Molly, the two are genuinely supportive of her interests. Amber is African-American, and has dark brown eyes and long wavy hair. Jasmine is of an Asian ethniticity, and has light hazel eyes and dark-colored hair. [edit]Linnea, Alexia and Windy Linnea is a princess that visits Horseland in disguise, pretending to be the princesses' assistant, while Alexia, her maid, pretends to be the princess. Both have light blonde hair, blue eyes, and favor the color light pink, although Alexia is much shorter than her companion. Linnea is close friends with Sarah. Linnea's horse is Windy, a mare who looks like Talia's Kisses and wears an ornate bridle. She also has a wavy mane and tail. She doesn't understand English and only speaks her native tongue, so when Scarlet introduces herself, Windy becomes too shy to respond. [edit]Competitors Shown in the episode "Win Some, Lose Some," these girls and their horses ride for local stables and compete against Alma, Molly, and Sarah. Megan Shaw is a rider from Blue Meadow stables. She has light green eyes and wavy brown hair. Megan's shown to wear lime green. Her horse is chestnut-colored. Katie Green is a rider from Shenandoah Stables. She has strawberry-blonde hair in a ponytail, and rides a light brown/white appaloosa. Katie's shown to wear royal blue, although her appaloosa has been shown having both royal and light blue highlights. Carrie Jenkins is a rider from Piedmont Stables. She is a capable rider, as shown when she takes the lead in a jumping competition. She has long, curly, blonde hair and hazel eyes. She rides a dun horse. Carrie's shown to wear reddish-pink. [edit]Diablo Diablo is a red stallion with an injured back leg who belongs to a girl named Madison and initially has an aggressive behavior. His only appearance is "The Horse Whisperer". His name means "devil" in Spanish. He has a wavy mane and tail. [edit]Puma Puma is a light-colored wild mustang staying at Horseland. His mane and tail are highlighted in black and white. His only appearance is in the episode "Wild Horses", where he tells Aztec what it's like to live in the wild, prompting Aztec to run away. [edit]Wild Horses These horses are met by Aztec when he runs away from Horseland. The two identified by name are Chaco, a black herd stallion who doesn't want Aztec on its territory, and Mesa, a palomino colt that befriends Aztec. Other horses in the herd are a pair of bays, Mesa's palomino mother, and a piebald tobiano mare. They all have plain manes and tails. [edit]River River is a famous racehorse that comes to Horseland to recuperate from a leg injury. He is dark grey with a white mane and tail, and has light blue highlights. His only appearance is "A Horse Named River" and according to this episode, he is the eldest horse who speaks with an elderly voice. He was younger and belonged to an unnamed girl in flashbacks. [edit]Buttercup In "The Best Loss," Buttercup is a palomino mare belonging to one of the judges. She is gentle and sweet, and her color is light turquoise. She is the only horse who doesn't meet any of the others in this episode. [edit]Cream and Sugar Cream is a white foal that has light pink highlights and his sister, Sugar, is a Dutch Warmblood that has light blue highlights. They are fraternal twins and they only appear in "Oh, Baby". They are the youngest horses to have a long mane and tail just like grownup horses have. [edit]Misc. Animals There are three more animals who appear in one episode or a few. Mosey is an old black cat, comical and eccentric, Cubby, a furry puppy, and an unnamed mountain lion who acts as an antagonist toward the horses and animals. [edit]Cast

Dana Donlan Emily Hernandez Bianca Heyward David Kalis Jerry Longe Laura Marr Vincent Michael Marissa Shea Aleyah Smith Michelle Zacharia Ben Birkholtz Courtney Britt Tifanie Christun Stephen Shelton Andrea Ware Kelcey Watson Tiffany White-Welchen D. Kevin Williams Brice Altman Benjamin Beck Susan Baer Collins Nils Haaland Caroline Lliff Moral Masuoka Cork Ramer Samantha Triba Prenisha Barfield Miranda Christine Cody Fox R.C. Cash John Michael Lee Roz Parr Ryle Smith Mary Waltman [edit]Episode guide

[edit]Season One: 2006

1. Title Original airdate Production code

01 "You Can't Judge a Girl By Her Limo" September 30, 2006 103 When a new girl Sarah Whitney arrives at Horseland, Chloe and Zoey are eager to meet a fellow wealthy girl. However, Sarah just wants to make friends with the nice people and the horses of Horseland, and so does her horse, Scarlet. The rest of the gang Bailey, Alma and Molly judge Sarah before they meet her because she's rich, after which Sarah decides that maybe she just doesn't belong at Horseland. Eventually, the others decide she got to go but after they judge her again and be friends. 02 "Win Some, Lose Some" September 23, 2006 102 Alma Rodriguez thinks she is too good to practice for the upcoming Huntingfield Downs horse show, because she feels she is the 'best' jumper at Horseland. However, the course is changed at the last minute and Horseland doesn't do so well in the show. In the end, Alma learns a lesson about the importance of trying her as well as the importance of practicing. 03 "Back in the Saddle Again" October 14, 2006 105 During practice one day, Molly is thrown off Calypso during jumping and becomes too scared to ride her anymore. Days pass and Molly still refuses to ride Calypso, despite Molly wanting nothing more than to ride her. However, when Scarlet is struck with a serious case of colic and with Sarah unwilling to leave her side, Molly must learn to get over her fear and ride to the vet and retrieve help before Scarlet dies. 04 "Cry Wolf" October 7, 2006 104 Fed up with Chloe shirking her responsibility of cleaning out Chili's stall, Alma decides to trick her by saying a bracelet Chloe lost is in the stall and she'll have to clean it in order to find it. Later, on a hike, Alma spies a wolf, but nobody believes her because of the way she lied to trick Chloe earlier. Alma returns to the spot she saw to wolf to get proof, but Button is scared away by the wolf, leaving Alma to fend off the wolf by herself. 05 "Fire, Fire, Burning Bright" September 16, 2006 101 Everyone except Bailey goes on a trail ride, and Chloe and Zoey are assigned the job of putting out the camp fire. Unfortunately, they don't do it well enough and accidentally cause a forest fire. Will blames himself for what happened. Will they make it to safety? 06 "Fast Friends" October 21, 2006 106 Sarah, Alma, Molly, and Zoey are assigned to doing musical kur for an upcoming competition, but Calypso struggles with learning the routine sneezing. Worried they will mess up during the competition and embarrass her and Pepper, Zoey attempts to get Molly to drop out by convincing her that Sarah and Alma plan to drop her from the routine anyway. Unfortunately, Molly takes it as a sign nobody wants her around Horseland anymore and plans to leave the ranch forever. Then Sarah and Alma find out what Zoey did, and even though the show is about to start, they go find her and teach Zoey a lesson. 07 "Pepper's Pain" October 28, 2006 107 After Pepper is injured during a competition, Zoey turns her back on her and starts avoiding her after hearing about a horse having to be put down after it is injured. Pepper becomes depressed and unmotivated to get better and ride again when Zoey stops coming by to see her, which only adds to Zoey's fears about losing her. Zoey then gets a new horse to ride, because she thought Pepper was going to die. It's up to the rest of the Horseland gang to reunite both Zoey and Pepper before the two give up on each other, and their lives at Horseland, for good. 08 "The Awful Truth" November 4, 2006 108 Chloe lies to everyone about jumping over a parallel oxer so she can impress Bailey. Her fib succeeds in impressing him, but it soon escalates to the point where reporters come to Horseland for a meet to watch her make the jump, since it is rare that such a young rider can perform it. Chloe decides to practice the jump the night before the competition, but Chili sprains his leg during the process. The next day at the meet, Chloe must either come clean with her lie, or attempt another jump and endanger the lives of both her and Chili. 09 "The Best Loss" November 11, 2006 109 Molly invites her friends from the city to watch her perform at an upcoming competition and to meet her friends at Horseland. However, she is afraid that they won't like each other due to the fact her city friends are all about goofing off and having fun while her friends at Horseland are dedicated and serious about work. When her city friends become lost on their way to the competition, Molly drops out of the competition in order to find them, with the help of her friends at Horseland. 10 "The Can-Do Kid" November 18, 2006 110 The girls are given the task of learning lateral dressage and Sarah is especially determined to learn it. Rather than take it slow, she pushes Scarlet and herself to the maximum and ends up spraining Scarlet's leg during practice one day. Convinced that Scarlet is unable to learn it, Sarah decides to give up her determination; but when her and her friends are stranded in the middle of a river during a fierce thunderstorm, Sarah realizes that her determination may be the only thing that can save them. 11 "The Competition" November 25, 2006 111 The Junior Nationals are coming up and the theme of the competition is western riding. Horseland must pick one rider to represent them and the gang begins to compete to see which one of them will go to the nationals. Everything is going smoothly until they find out that a famous rock star they all like will be a judge at the competition. Soon, they all begin to turn on each other and start letting the chance to meet their favorite singer take priority over their friendship. Unless they find a way to fix it, the competition may end up costing them their friendship. 12 "Boss Bailey" December 2, 2006 112 Will leaves for one day to help Bailey's folks for the parade. Sarah, curious to where Will is heading, rides on Scarlet and talks with Will, who is in a car, who tells Sarah what to do if Bailey goes to far. Everything runs smoothly until Bailey yells at Alma for constantly messing up and continues to bark orders at everyone like a dictator. When a storm hits, the kids quit for the night, but Alma continues to practice so she won't upset Bailey. Unfortunately, the storm spooks Button which causes her to run off with Alma in tow. Bailey and Sarah must now work together to go find her, and Bailey has to figure out how to lead a scared Button back to Horseland without scaring her any further. 13 "A True Gift" December 9, 2006 113 Sarah's blind cousin, Mary, comes to Horseland for a visit. Sarah is busy training a new horse so she lets Mary take care of and ride Scarlet while she is visiting. Bailey, Molly, and Alma are concerned with leaving her by herself, so they constantly follow her around offering to do everything for her. However, when the four of them get lost on a new trail at night, they soon begin to understand that Mary is not as helpless as they think she is. [edit]Season Two: 2007

1. Title Original airdate Production code

01 "First Love" September 15, 2007 201 When Alma discovers that her pen pal and love, Alexander, is going to visit Horseland, she's worried that she won't be good enough for him. Chloe and Zoey attempt to help her impress him, but their plan backfires. Then Alexander and his horse falls down a steep ravine which Alma saves him and she finds out that she was good enough for him. 02 "Bailey's New Friend" September 22, 2007 202 When a new boy, Jesse, comes for an extended visit to Horseland, Bailey is overjoyed to have a boy his own age to hang out with. When he starts neglecting his friendship with Alma, Molly, and Sarah, though, tension grows. Chloe and Zoey, always jealous of his relationship with the other girls, go out of their way to ensure that much of his time is spent with Jesse. When Horseland is chartered for the birthday party of the annoying Ethan Simon, though, the friends must get back together to organize the party. 03 "Molly and Chili" September 29, 2007 203 The Horseland gang is excited to go on the Twilight Trek, an annual outdoor campout during the course of which horses and riders are expected to bond. Calypso has a hot spot, however, that prevents her from being ridden. Chloe, who is also unable to go due to a cold, offers to let Molly ride Chili instead. The two initially don't get along, but become friends after a close encounter with a bear. 04 "Wild Horses" October 6, 2007 204 A once-wild horse named Puma comes to Horseland, and talks of his life in the wild. This makes Aztec also want to run away and be free. He manages to sneaks away, but comes to find out that life away from civilization is a lot harder than he expected. Meanwhile, Bailey is distraught with worry for his beloved horse. Eventually, the two are reunited, and Aztec decides that he prefers life at Horseland. Meanwhile Sarah is at Stanhope Riding School but later decides to stay with her friends at Horseland. 05 "Magic in the Moonlit Meadow" October 13, 2007 205 An elderly horse teaches Chili about a horse's innate herd instinct, a form of magic, and how it is beneficial for the whole group of horses. 06 "The Horse Whisperer" October 20, 2007 206 While the other members of Horseland vie for a broadcast internship, competing fiercely with each other, Sarah tries to re-train Diablo, a stallion injured in a jumping accident for her friend Madison. 07 "Mosey" October 27, 2007 207 Over the course of a winter, the beloved barn cat of Horseland, Mosey, is becoming very old and sick. He eventually gets hit by a car then leaves while Sarah is asleep. Too heartbroken to even ride Scarlet, she spends the following days sulking. One day she lets out her feelings to Will while grooming Scarlet then he comforts her. Spring comes and Will asks her to nurse a small piglet she then names him Little Mosey and feels ready to ride again. 08 "The Big Parade" November 3, 2007 208 Chloe and Zoey blame Sarah when things start disappearing around the stables, and the tension threatens their riding teamwork for an upcoming important parade. Scarlet then finds out a crow is responsible for the missing items after witnessing it take a coin and fly away. 09 "The Bluebird of Happiness" November 10, 2007 209 While on a ride, Zoey finds an injured bluebird that has been attacked by a hawk. She tries to nurture it back to health, and forms a bond with it. Despite her attachment to the bird, though, she fails to see that keeping such a bird caged is bad for a wild animal. Shep, Angora and Teeny find a way to teach her a lesson in compassion. 10 "Riding In Style" November 17, 2007 210 An equestrian fashion designer comes to Horseland, and the gang is thrilled to model for the subsequent photo shoot. However, the clothes are impractical and too dangerous to ride in. The kids must speak up before someone gets hurt. 11 "International Sarah" November 24, 2007 211 The Horseland get hurt on a trip to France for a riding exhibition. Sarah's father encourages her to befriend the daughter of one of his friends, an Indian girl named Simbala. Both girls worry that the other won't like them, and a few mishaps seem to confirm this. When the pair falls into an underground cave, though, they discover that they are more alike than they are different. 12 "Changing Spots" December 1, 2007 212 Alma, Chloe and Zoey strike a deal: Alma will be more competitive during an upcoming show jumping competition if Chloe and Zoey will be nice. When Alma has to face a rude super-competitive rider from Horseland's bitter rival, Stanhope Academy, though, she's not sure that being untrue to herself is such a good thing. 13 "The Whispering Gallery" December 8, 2007 213 Alma accuses Molly of spreading malicious gossip about Sarah, even though it's not true. The friends become divided, and give Molly the silent treatment until the truth is revealed. The Sarah that Molly referred to was a singer named Sarah Sloane, from Zoey's gossip magazine. [edit]Season Three: 2008

1. Title Original airdate Production code

01 "The Secret" September 13, 2008 301 When a new boy, Chase, visits Sarah at Horseland, Alma, Molly, Bailey, Chloe and Zoey think that he's her boyfriend. But Will tells them that Chase is Sarah's cousin. Chase helps them prepare for an upcoming dressage show, but refuses to read the directions. Chloe and Zoey think that he is illiterate, but it is revealed that he is, instead, dyslexic. 02 "The Newbies" September 20, 2008 302 A Native American girl and her horse come for a visit at Horseland. Zoey especially jumps to conclusions, which leads to a rivalry for a leadership role between the two girls. The two then have a cross country race to see who will be the team leader for an indoor cross country course. At the end they become good friends. 03 "A New Development" September 27, 2008 303 The Horseland gang discovers that their beloved meadow may be used as a construction site, and vow to stop the development. 04 "New Pup in Town" October 4, 2008 304 Bailey finds a lost puppy, Cubby, and decides to adopt him. However, both Alma and Shep begin to act abnormally and, as usual, something's afoot. 05 "A Horse Named River" October 11, 2008 305 Chili's idol, a famous racehorse named River, comes to stay at Horseland. However, River is retired, causing Chili some concern. 06 "The Last Drop" October 18, 2008 306 A heavy drought has hit Horseland and the surrounding countryside, and water is scarce. Chloe doesn't seem to care – until she's led to believe that she used up the last drop. 07 "No News is Good News" October 25, 2008 307 Chloe and Zoey are thrilled to be able to run Horseland's website, but their reporting rarely sticks to the truth, and rumors are spread. They don't think anything of it until the Animal Health and Safety Department shows up and threatens to close Horseland down. 08 "Talk Talk" November 1, 2008 308 Molly gets her first cell phone, and loves it. But can she stop chatting long enough to care for Calypso and spend time with her friends? 09 "Oh, Baby" November 8, 2008 309 Twin baby foals come for a temporary visit at Horseland while their mother recuperates. The kids lavish much of their attention on the adorable foals, making all the horses, especially Calypso and Aztec, jealous, but Scarlet really cares about the foals. 10 "Heritage Days" November 15, 2008 310 The Horseland gang is set to ride in a "Heritage Days" parade. But, they can't decide on what sort of heritage they'll represent. 11 "The Princess" November 22, 2008 311 A princess, Linnea, and her assistant come to ride for a day at Horseland. Chloe and Zoey want to make a socially advantageous friendship with the princess, but end up mistaking her for her assistant. 12 "Added Weight" November 29, 2008 312 When her friends tease her about her weight, Pepper becomes worried and goes on an unhealthy crash diet. 13 "Sister, Sister" December 6, 2008 313 Sarah and Alma try to convince the constantly bickering Stilton twins to tell each other "I Love You". Their plan fails until the two try to cheer their sister up, while at the same time sacrificing what they hold dear. A classic "Gift of the Magi" story