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User:BRPever/Darjeeling

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Darjeeling
City
Left to right from top:
A panoramic view of Darjeeling with the Kangchenjunga massif towering behind; statue of the first Nepali language poet Bhanubhakta Acharya at Chowrasta Square; the goddess Durga in relief at the Mahakal Temple, Darjeeling, completed 1782; statue of Tenzing Norgay just outside the Himalayan Mountaineering Institute est. 1954; Darjeeling railway station, opened 1881; a tea garden in Darjeeling
Nickname: 
The Queen of Hills[1]
Darjeeling is located in West Bengal
Darjeeling
Darjeeling
Location in West Bengal, India
Darjeeling is located in India
Darjeeling
Darjeeling
Darjeeling (India)
Coordinates: 27°02′15″N 88°15′47″E / 27.03750°N 88.26306°E / 27.03750; 88.26306
CountryIndia
StateWest Bengal
DistrictDarjeeling
Settled1815, Treaty of Sugauli
Founded byEast India Company
Government
 • TypeMunicipal Corporations in India
 • BodyDarjeeling Municipality
 • ChairmanPratibha Rai[2]
 • Vice-ChairmanSagar Tamang
Area
[3]
 • City10.60 km2 (4.09 sq mi)
 • Metro
12.77 km2 (4.93 sq mi)
Elevation
[4]
2,042.16 m (6,700.00 ft)
Population
 (2011)[3]
 • City120,414
 • Density11,000/km2 (29,000/sq mi)
 • Metro
132,016
Languages
 • OfficialBengali and Nepali[5]
Time zoneUTC+5:30 (IST)
Postal Index Number
734101
Telephone code0354
Vehicle registrationWB-76 WB-77
Lok Sabha constituencyDarjeeling
Vidhan Sabha constituencyDarjeeling
Websitedarjeelingmunicipality.org.in

Darjeeling (Bengali: [ˈdarˌdʒiliŋ], Nepali: [darˈd͡ziliŋ]) is a city and a municipality in the Indian state of West Bengal. It lies in the Lesser Himalayas at an elevation of 2,000 metres (6,560 ft). It is noted for its tea industry, its scenic views of the world's third-highest mountain Kangchenjunga, and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a narrow-gauge mountain railway which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Darjeeling is the headquarters of the Darjeeling district which has a partially autonomous status called Gorkhaland Territorial Administration within the state of West Bengal. It is also a popular tourist destination in India.

In the early 19th century during East India Company rule in India a sanatorium and a military depot were set up in the region. Subsequently, extensive tea plantations were established, the tea growers developing hybrids of black tea and creating new fermentation techniques. A distinctive Darjeeling tea emerged, which became internationally recognised and has ranked among the most popular black teas in the world.[6] The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway connecting the town with the North Bengal plains was completed in 1881 and has some of the few remaining steam locomotives in service in India.

Darjeeling has several British-style private schools that attract pupils from India and neighbouring countries. The culture of the town reflects its diverse demographic milieu which comprises the Lepcha, Khampa, Kirati, Gorkha, Newari, Sherpa, Bhutia, Bengali[7] as well as other Indian ethno-linguistic groups. Darjeeling and nearby Kalimpong were the centres of the Gorkhaland movement in the 1980s.

Origin of name change

The name Darjeeling comes from the Tibetan words Dorje and Ling. Dorje means thunderbolt staff of the Hindu god Indra, and ling means "a place" or "land".[8]

History change

See the main article: History of Darjeeling

The history of Darjeeling is related to that of Sikkim, Nepal, British India, and Bhutan. Until the early 19th century, the hilly area around Darjeeling was controlled by the Kingdom of Sikkim.[9] Lepcha people used to live around that region.[10] The Chogyal of Sikkim had fought several war against the Gurkhas of Nepal.

From 1780, the Gurkhas tried to capture the entire region of Darjeeling many times. By the start of the 19th century, they had captured Sikkim as far eastward as the Teesta River. They had taken control of the Terai and the entire area now belonged to Nepal.[11] In the meantime, the British Army tried to stop the Gurkhas from taking over the whole of the northern frontier. The Anglo-Nepalese War broke out in 1814, which resulted in the defeat of the Gurkhas. It led to the signing of the Sugauli Treaty in 1816. According to the treaty, Nepal had to give back all those region captured from the Chogyal of Sikkim to the British East India Company (i.e. the area between Mechi River and Teesta River). Later in 1817, through the Treaty of Titalia, the British East India Company gave the land back to Chogyal of Sikkim.[12]

In 1828, a group of the British East India Company (BEIC) officials decided that the region was a suitable site for a medical facility for British soldiers.[13][14] The company discussed a contract for the area west of the Mahananda River from the Chogyal of Sikkim in 1835.[15] In 1849, the BEIC Superintendent Archibald Campbell and the explorer and botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker were imprisoned in the region by the Sikkim Chogyal. The BEIC sent a force to free them. Continued friction between the BEIC and the Sikkim authorities resulted in the annexation of 1,700 square kilometres (640 sq mi) of territory by the British in 1850. In 1864, the Bhutanese rulers and the British signed the Treaty of Sinchula that ceded the passes leading through the hills and Kalimpong to the British.[12][16] By 1866, BEIC annexed what would be known as Darjeeling hills area, roughly corresponding to the present day districts of Darjeeling and Kalimpong,[17] covering an area of 3,200 square kilometres (1,234 sq mi).[12]

During the British Raj, Darjeeling's temperate climate led to its development as a hill station for British residents seeking to escape the summer heat of the plains. The development of Darjeeling as a sanatorium and health resort proceeded briskly.[10] Arthur Campbell, a surgeon with the company, and Lieutenant Robert Napier were responsible for establishing a hill station there. Campbell's efforts to develop the station, attract immigrants to cultivate the slopes and stimulate trade resulted in a hundredfold increase in the population of Darjeeling between 1835 and 1849.[12][18] The first road connecting the town with the plains was constructed between 1839 and 1842.[10][18] In 1848, a military depot was set up for British soldiers, and the town became a municipality in 1850.[18]

Commercial cultivation of tea in the district began in 1856, and induced a number of British planters to settle there.[13] The tea industry expanded rapidly, and consisted of more than 100 tea gardens employing estimated 64,000 employees by the turn of the twentieth century.[19] Darjeeling became the formal summer capital of the Bengal Presidency after 1864.[20] Scottish missionaries undertook the construction of schools and welfare centres for the British residents, laying the foundation for Darjeeling's notability as a centre of education. The opening of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway in 1881 further hastened the development of the region.[21] In 1899, Darjeeling was rocked by major landslides that caused severe damage to the town and the native population.[22]

Under the British Raj, the Darjeeling area was initially a "Non-Regulation District", a scheme of administration applicable to economically less advanced districts in the British India; acts and regulations of the British Raj did not automatically apply to the district in line with the rest of the country. In 1919, the area was declared a "backward tract".[23]

 
The King of Sikkim in Darjeeling about 1900
 
A pro-Gorkhaland independence poster in Darjeeling

During the Indian independence movement, the Non-cooperation movement spread through the tea estates of Darjeeling.[24] There was also a failed assassination attempt by revolutionaries on John Anderson, the Governor of Bengal in 1934.[25] Subsequently, during the 1940s, communist activists continued the nationalist movement against the British by mobilising the plantation workers and the peasants of the district.[26]

Socio-economic problems of the region that had not been addressed during the British Raj continued to linger and were reflected in a representation made to the Constituent Assembly of India in 1947, which highlighted the issues of regional autonomy and Nepali nationality in Darjeeling and adjacent areas.[26] While the hill population comprised mainly ethnic Nepalis, the plains harboured a large ethnic Bengali population who were refugees from the Partition of India.[27] A cautious and non-receptive response by the West Bengal government to most demands of the ethnic Nepali population led to increased calls, in the 1950s and 1960s, for Darjeeling's autonomy and for the recognition of the Nepali language; the state government acceded to the latter demand in 1961.[28]

The creation of a new state of Sikkim in 1975, along with the reluctance of the Government of India to recognise Nepali as an official language under the Constitution of India, brought the Gorkhaland movement to the forefront.[29] Agitation for a separate state continued through the 1980s,[30] included violent protests during the 1986–88 period. The agitation ceased only after an agreement between the government and the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF), resulting in the establishment of an elected body in 1988 called the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC), which received autonomy to govern the district. Though Darjeeling became peaceful, the issue of a separate state lingered, fuelled in part by the lack of comprehensive economic development in the region even after the formation of the DGHC.[31] New protests erupted in 2008–09, but both the Union and State governments rejected Gorkha Janmukti Morcha's (GJM) demand for a separate state.[32] In July 2011, a pact was signed between GJM, the Government of West Bengal and the Government of India which includes the formation of a new autonomous, elected Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA), a hill council endowed with more powers than its predecessor Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council.[33] However, political stability in the region remained elusive due to recurrent internal dispute among GJM leaders,[34] capricious alliance building with national-level political parties (Trinamul Congress and Bharatiya Janata Party),[35][36] and occasional–sometimes violent–protests demanding creation of separate Gorkhaland.[37][38][39]

Geography change

Topography change

Darjeeling
TE: tea estate, F: facility, T: religious place, I: institute
Abbreviations used in names – TE for Tea Estate
Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map

Darjeeling is the main town of the Sadar subdivision and also the headquarters of the district. It is located at an elevation of 2,000 m (6,700 ft)[4] in the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region on the Darjeeling-Jalapahar range that originates in the south from Ghum. The range is Y-shaped with the base resting at Katapahar and Jalapahar and two arms diverging north of the Observatory Hill. The north-eastern arm dips suddenly and ends in the Lebong spur, while the north-western arm passes through North Point and ends in the valley near Tukver Tea Estate.[40] The hills are nestled within higher peaks and the snowcapped Himalayan ranges tower over the town at distance. Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest peak at 8,598 m (28,209 ft), is the most prominent mountain visible. On clear days Nepal's Mount Everest, 8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft), Lhotse at 8,516 m (27,940 ft) and Makalu at 8,485 m (27,838 ft) can be seen from Tiger Hill.[41]

The hills of Darjeeling are part of the Lesser Himalaya. The soil is chiefly composed of sandstone and conglomerate formations, which are the solidified and upheaved detritus of the great range of Himalaya. However, the soil is often poorly consolidated (the permeable sediments of the region do not retain water between rains) and is not considered suitable for agriculture. The area has steep slopes and loose topsoil, leading to frequent landslides during the monsoons.

Seismology change

According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, the city falls under seismic zone-IV, (on a scale of I to V, in order of increasing proneness to earthquakes) near the convergent boundary of the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates and is subject to frequent earthquakes.[41]

Climate change

Darjeeling has a temperate climate (Köppen: Cwb,[42] subtropical highland climate) with wet summers caused by monsoon rains.[43]

According to India Meteorological Department, Darjeeling's annual mean maximum temperature is 17.2 °C (63.0 °F) while the mean minimum temperature is 8.5 °C (47.3 °F).[44] The lowest temperature ever recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) on 30 January 1971 while the highest temperature rose to 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) on 21 August 1970.[44] The average annual precipitation is 2,380 mm (94 in), with an average of 105 days of rain in a year.[44] The highest rainfall occurs in July.[45][42] The heavy and concentrated rainfall that is experienced in the region, aggravated by deforestation and haphazard planning, often causes devastating landslides, leading to loss of life and property.[46][47] Snowfall is rare, and the town can go many years without any snow.[48][49][50][51]

Climate data for Darjeeling (1981–2010, extremes 1901–2012)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 19.0
(66.2) 		19.2
(66.6) 		24.0
(75.2) 		27.0
(80.6) 		25.7
(78.3) 		27.7
(81.9) 		28.0
(82.4) 		28.5
(83.3) 		27.5
(81.5) 		26.0
(78.8) 		24.5
(76.1) 		20.0
(68.0) 		28.5
(83.3)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 15.1
(59.2) 		15.8
(60.4) 		19.8
(67.6) 		22.4
(72.3) 		22.6
(72.7) 		22.7
(72.9) 		22.4
(72.3) 		22.8
(73.0) 		23.2
(73.8) 		22.7
(72.9) 		20.7
(69.3) 		17.4
(63.3) 		24.4
(75.9)
Average high °C (°F) 10.7
(51.3) 		12.4
(54.3) 		15.6
(60.1) 		18.5
(65.3) 		19.3
(66.7) 		19.8
(67.6) 		19.6
(67.3) 		20.0
(68.0) 		19.8
(67.6) 		19.5
(67.1) 		17.1
(62.8) 		14.0
(57.2) 		17.2
(63.0)
Daily mean °C (°F) 6.1
(43.0) 		7.7
(45.9) 		10.6
(51.1) 		13.7
(56.7) 		14.9
(58.8) 		16.3
(61.3) 		16.5
(61.7) 		16.7
(62.1) 		16.1
(61.0) 		15.0
(59.0) 		11.7
(53.1) 		8.9
(48.0) 		12.9
(55.1)
Average low °C (°F) 1.5
(34.7) 		2.9
(37.2) 		5.7
(42.3) 		8.8
(47.8) 		10.6
(51.1) 		12.8
(55.0) 		13.4
(56.1) 		13.4
(56.1) 		12.4
(54.3) 		10.5
(50.9) 		6.3
(43.3) 		3.8
(38.8) 		8.5
(47.3)
Mean minimum °C (°F) −0.5
(31.1) 		0.7
(33.3) 		2.7
(36.9) 		5.4
(41.7) 		7.4
(45.3) 		10.3
(50.5) 		11.4
(52.5) 		11.9
(53.4) 		10.6
(51.1) 		8.0
(46.4) 		3.9
(39.0) 		1.2
(34.2) 		−0.1
(31.8)
Record low °C (°F) −7.2
(19.0) 		−6.4
(20.5) 		−4.8
(23.4) 		0.0
(32.0) 		1.4
(34.5) 		6.6
(43.9) 		3.9
(39.0) 		8.0
(46.4) 		6.2
(43.2) 		3.2
(37.8) 		−4.4
(24.1) 		−4.6
(23.7) 		−7.2
(19.0)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 13.5
(0.53) 		14.0
(0.55) 		30.8
(1.21) 		76.9
(3.03) 		137.9
(5.43) 		466.0
(18.35) 		656.7
(25.85) 		528.2
(20.80) 		379.7
(14.95) 		59.1
(2.33) 		14.4
(0.57) 		2.9
(0.11) 		2,380
(93.70)
Average rainy days 1.1 1.5 2.8 6.8 10.5 18.8 22.9 21.7 14.9 2.9 0.6 0.7 105.3
Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) 81 78 75 78 88 93 94 92 90 84 75 74 84
Mean monthly sunshine hours 167.4 141.3 145.7 147.0 151.9 72.0 77.5 102.3 96.0 167.4 189.0 189.1 1,646.6
Mean daily sunshine hours 5.4 5.0 4.7 4.9 4.9 2.4 2.5 3.3 3.2 5.4 6.3 6.1 4.5
Average ultraviolet index 5 6 9 11 13 15 15 14 12 9 6 4 10
Source 1: India Meteorological Department[45][52] UV Index[53]
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun 1891–1990)[54]

Flora and fauna change

 
The Lloyd's Botanical Garden, established 1878
A Red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in the Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park

Darjeeling is a part of the Eastern Himalayan zoo-geographic zone.[55] Flora around Darjeeling comprises sal, oak, semi-evergreen, temperate and alpine forests.[56] Dense evergreen forests of sal and oak lie around the town, where a wide variety of rare orchids are found. The Lloyd's Botanical Garden preserves common and rare species of plants, while the Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park specialises in conserving and breeding endangered Himalayan species.[57] The town of Darjeeling and surrounding region face deforestation due to increasing demand for wood fuel and timber, as well as air pollution from increasing vehicular traffic.[58]

Forests and wildlife in the district are managed and protected by the Divisional Forest Officer of the Territorial and Wildlife wing of the West Bengal Forest Department.[55] The fauna found in Darjeeling includes several species of ducks, teals, plovers and gulls that pass Darjeeling while migrating to and from Tibet.[59] Small mammals found in the region include small Indian civets, mongooses and badgers.[60] TA conservation centre for red pandas opened at Darjeeling Zoo in 2014, building on a prior captive breeding program.[61] The Himalayan newt Tylotriton verrucosus, one of two salamander species occurring in India, is found in wetlands in the vicinity.[62] The Himalayan relict dragonfly Epiophlebia laidlawi, one of just four species in the family Epiophlebiidae was first described from the region.[63]

Civic administration change

 
Darjeeling Municipality Building

The Darjeeling urban agglomeration consists of Darjeeling Municipality and the Tukvar Tea Garden (Tukvar valley).[64] Established in 1850, the Darjeeling municipality maintains the civic administration of the town, covering an area of 10.60 km2 (4.09 sq mi).[3][64] The municipality consists of a board of councillors elected from each of the 32 wards of Darjeeling town as well as a few members nominated by the state government. The board of councillors elects a chairman from among its elected members;[40] the chairman is the executive head of the municipality. As of 2021, the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) holds power in the municipality.[65]

From 1988 to 2012, the Gorkha-dominated hill areas of Darjeeling district were under the jurisdiction of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC).[66] In 2012, the DGHC was replaced by the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA). The elected members of GTA manage certain affairs of the hills, including education, industry and land revenue; however they cannot legislate or levy taxes.[67] Law and order in Darjeeling town comes under the jurisdiction of the district police force, which is a part of the West Bengal Police; a Deputy Superintendent of Police oversees the town's security and law affairs. Darjeeling municipality area has two police stations at Darjeeling and Jorebungalow.[68]

Civil utilities change

Natural springs in the Senchal Range provide most of Darjeeling's water supply. Water goes through stone conduits to two lakes that were built in 1910 and 1932, from where it is piped to the town after being purified at the Jorebungalow filtration plant.[69] During the dry season, when water supplied by springs is insufficient, water is pumped from Khong Khola, a nearby perennial stream. Increasing demand has led to a large decrease in water supply; just over 50% of the town's households are connected to the municipal water supply system.[40] Different efforts made to increase the water supply, including the construction of a third storage reservoir in 1984, have not helped.[69]

The town has an underground sewage system, covering about 40% of the town area, that collects domestic waste and pipes it to septic tanks for disposal.[70] Solid waste is taken to a nearby dumping ground, where the town's crematorium is also located.[70] Doorstep collection of garbage and separation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste have been in use since 2003.[71] Vermicomposting of vegetable waste is also done with the help of non-governmental organisations.[72] In June 2009, to reduce waste, the municipality proposed a ban on plastic carrier bags and sachets in the town.[73]

From 1897 to the early 1990s, Darjeeling was powered by hydroelectricity from the nearby Sidrapong Hydel Power Station, and it was the first town in India supplied with hydropower. Today, electricity is supplied by the West Bengal State Electricity Board from other locations. The town often has power outages and the electrical supply voltage is unstable, making voltage stabilisers popular with many households. Almost all of the primary schools are now maintained by Darjeeling Gorkha Autonomous Hill Council. The total length of all types of roads within the municipal area is around 134 km (83 mi).[74] The West Bengal Fire Service provides emergency services for the town.

Economy change

 
Picking tea leaves in the traditional fashion
 
A tea factory in Darjeeling

The two most important contributors to Darjeeling's economy are tourism and the tea industry. Darjeeling tea, due to the unique agro-climatic conditions of Darjeeling, has a distinctive natural flavour. The office of the Darjeeling Indian Tea Association (DITA) is located at Darjeeling.[6] Darjeeling grows 7% of India's tea, aabout 9,000,000 kilograms (20,000,000 lb) every year.[32] The tea industry has had competition in recent years from tea produced in other parts of India as well as other countries like Nepal.[75] Concerns about labour disputes, worker layoffs and closing of estates have affected investment and production.[76][77] Several tea estates are being run on a workers' cooperative model, while others are being planned to changed to tourist resorts.[76] Women are normally chosen over men for the work of picking tea leaves, and are more than half of tea plantation workers.[77][78] Other than tea, other crops that are grown include maize, millets, paddy, cardamom, potato and ginger.[79]

Darjeeling had become an important tourist destination as early as 1860.[18] It is reported to be the only location in eastern India that has large numbers of foreign tourists.[32] Tourism in Darjeeling had been affected by the political instability in the region, and problems in the 1980s and 2000s caused tourism to go down.[32][80] Since 2012, Darjeeling has once again seen an increase in both domestic and international tourists. As of 2015, around 50,000 foreign and 500,000 domestic tourists visit Darjeeling each year,[81] and its repute as the "Queen of the Hills" lives on.[82] According to an India Today survey published on 23 December 2015, Darjeeling is the third most Googled travel destination in India.[83] It is also a popular destination for Bollywood and Bengali cinema. Noted Bengali film director Satyajit Ray filmed his movie Kanchenjungha (1962) here. Bollywood movies such as Aradhana (1969), Main Hoon Na (2004), Parineeta (2005) and Barfi! (2012) were partially filmed in the town.[84][85]

Transport change

 
The narrow gauge train often crosses back and forth on the street

Darjeeling can be reached by the 88 km (55 mi) long Darjeeling Himalayan Railway from New Jalpaiguri, or by National Highway 55, from Siliguri, 77 km (48 mi) away.[86][87] The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is a 600 mm (2 ft) narrow-gauge railway that was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1999,[88] becoming only the second railway in the world to have this honour.[21][84] Bus services and hired vehicles connect Darjeeling with Siliguri and Darjeeling has road connections with Bagdogra, Gangtok and Kathmandu and the neighbouring towns of Kurseong and Kalimpong.[86] However, the roads and railways often get blocked in the monsoons because of landslides. The nearest airport is Bagdogra Airport, located 90 km (56 mi) from Darjeeling.[86] Within the town, people usually walk. Residents also use two-wheelers and hired taxis for travelling short distances. The Darjeeling Ropeway, which had been used since 1968, was closed in 2003 after an accident killed four tourists.[89] It reopened in February 2012.[90]

Demographics change

Historical populations[40]
Census
year		 Population Growth (%)
1901 17,000
1911 19,000 12.3
1921 22,000 17.1
1931 21,000 -4.8
1941 27,000 28.5
1951 34,000 23.4
1961 41,000 21.0
1971 43,000 5.5
1981 58,000 34.4
1991 71,000 24.1
2001 103,000 44.6

According to preliminary data from the 2011 census of India, the metropolitan area of Darjeeling has a population of 132,016, out of which 65,839 were males and 66,177 were females. The 0–6 years population is 7,382. Effective literacy rate for the population older than 6 years is 93.17 per cent.[91] According to the 2001 census, the Darjeeling urban agglomeration, with an area of 12.77 km2 (4.93 sq mi), had a population of 109,163, while the municipal area had a population of 107,530.[64] The population density of the municipal area was 10,173 inhabitants per square kilometre (26,350/sq mi). The sex ratio was 1,017 females per 1,000 males,[64] which was higher than the national average of 933 females per 1000 males.[92]

Gorkha is a word that describes Nepali-speaking people.[93] In Darjeeling, Gorkhas are the majority of population and include several ethnic groups such as the Chhetri, Gurung, Limbu, Magar, Newars,[7] Rai, Sherpa,[7] Tamang, Yolmo, Sunuwar along with other denominations under the Indo-Aryan Khas; the Tibeto-Burman ethnic groupd include Kirati, Lepcha and Bhutia.[94] Other communities that live in Darjeeling include the Anglo-Indians, Bengalis, Biharis, Chinese, Marwaris, Rajbanshis and Tibetans. Nepali is the lingua franca of Darjeeling;[95] other languages used include Hindi, Bengali and English. Bengali is common in the plains while Tibetan is used by the refugees and some tribal people.[7] Dzongkha is spoken by the Bhutias and the Tibetans. The main religions of Darjeeling are Hinduism and Buddhism, followed by Christianity.[96][97] Darjeeling has seen a significant growth in its population, its growth rate being 47% between 1991 and 2001.[64] Population growth and increasing tourist traffic have created major infrastructural and environmental problems; forests and other natural resources have been affected badly.[98][99]

Culture change

See the main article: Culture of Darjeeling
 
Colourful Buddhist prayer flags around Mahakal Temple at Observatory Hill, Darjeeling.

The culture of Darjeeling is diverse and includes a variety of indigenous practices and festivals, and has a regional distinctness from the rest of India.[19] Dashain (Vijayadashami), Tihar (Diwali), Holi, Lakshmi Puja,[100] Maghe Sankranti,[101] Losar, Buddha Jayanti, Christmas are major festivals. Tibetan Buddhism is followed by some ethnic groups such as Tibetans, Lepchas, Bhutias, Sherpas, Yolmos, Gurungs, and Tamangs; their common festivals are the Tibetan new year festival Losar,[102] Saga Dawa and Tendong Lho Rumfaat.[103][104] Popular icons of Hindu pantheon such as Durga, Kali, Shiva are worshipped by Hindus; in addition, there are deities which have both Hindu and Buddhist influences, such as Manjushri and Macchindranāth, popular among Newar people, and Gorakhnath, worshipped by Gorkhas.[102] The Tibetan Buddhism, or Lamaism, prevalent in the area is noted for importance of gompa or monasteries in community life of the followers.[102] Mixing and inter-marriage between ethnic groups have led to hybrid cultural forms and practices.[19] Darjeeling Carnival, initiated by a civil society movement known as The Darjeeling Initiative, is a ten-day carnival held yearly during the winter with portrayal of the Darjeeling Hill's musical and cultural heritage as its central theme.[105]

Colonial architecture is exemplified in Darjeeling by cottages, Gothic churches,[106] Planters' Club,[107] the Raj Bhawan and various educational institutions.[108][109] Buddhist monasteries show the pagoda style.[source?] A Peace Pagoda was built in 1992 by the Japanese Buddhist organisation Nipponzan Myohoji.[110]

Cuisine change

 
A couple in a roadside stall in Darjeeling district making momos
 
Tongba, a fermented millet drink.

Rice, noodles, and potatoes make up the main part of the food. The most popular local snack food is momo. It is a steamed flour dumpling filled with meat or vegetables and served hot with soup and spicy tomato sauce.

A popular food is Thukpa, which is of Tibetan origin. Thukpa is homemade noodle soup containing meat, eggs and vegetables. Other popular foods are Kinema, Chhurpi, Gundruk and Sha phaley.[111] Fermented foods and drinks are also eaten by a large number of people.[112] Fermented foods include food made up of soybean, bamboo shoots, milk and Sel roti, which is made from rice. [113] Tea (especially butter tea) is a popular in this region.[111] Alcoholic drinks include Tongba, Jnaard and Chhaang. They are local beers made by fermenting finger millet.[111][114][115]

Education change

 
Primary school children in Darjeeling, 1976

There are 52 primary schools, 67 high schools and 5 colleges in the town.[70][not in the source given] Having been a summer retreat for the British in India, Darjeeling became the place of choice for the establishment of public schools on the model of Eton, Harrow and Rugby, allowing the children of British officials to obtain an exclusive education.[116] Institutions such as Mount Hermon School, St. Robert's H.S. School, St. Paul's School, St. Joseph's School – North Point, Loreto Convent are renowned as centres of educational excellence.[117][non-primary source needed]

Political unrest change

See also change

Notes change

  1. ↑ "Darjeeling, the Queen of Hills". Retrieved 8 December 2020.
  2. ↑ "Pratibha Rai Takes Over As Chairperson Of Darjeeling Municipal Corporation". Siliguri Times. 17 January 2018. Archived from the original on 21 January 2018. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Darjeeling Municipality – Official Website". dm.gensoftindia.co.in. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "District Profile". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 17 August 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
  5. ↑ "Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India: 50th report (delivered to the Lokh Sabha in 2014)" (PDF). National Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. p. 95. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Srivastava 2003, p. 4024.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "People And Culture". Official webpage of Darjeeling District. Archived from the original on 25 December 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2009.
  8. ↑ "Pre-Independence [Darjeeling]". Government of Darjeeling. Archived from the original on 31 October 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
  9. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, pp. 47–48.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Dasgupta 1999, p. 51.
  11. ↑ Dozey, E. C. (1922). 1922 Darjeeling Past and Present – A Concise History of Darjeeling District since 1835. University of Michigan Library. p. 2. ASIN B00416COE4.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 "History of Darjeeling". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Dasgupta 1999, p. 50.
  14. ↑ Lamb 1986, p. 69.
  15. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, p. 47.
  16. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, p. 48.
  17. ↑ Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, p. 6.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Lamb 1986, p. 71.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, p. 8.
  20. ↑ Kenny 1995, p. 700.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Mountain Railways of India". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 3 May 2006. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  22. ↑ Gerard 1990, p. 258.
  23. ↑ Borbara, Sanjoy (2003). "Autonomy for Darjeeling: History and Practice". Experiences on Autonomy in East and North East: A Report on the Third Civil Society Dialogue on Human Rights and Peace. Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  24. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, p. 60.
  25. ↑ "Darjeeling Hills plunges into the Independence Movement". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Dasgupta 1999, p. 61.
  27. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, p. 55.
  28. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, pp. 61–62.
  29. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, p. 62.
  30. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, pp. 63–64.
  31. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, p. 65.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Dhar, S. (2009). "Darjeeling protests hit tea and tourism". Livemint. Archived from the original on 8 December 2012. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
  33. ↑ "Darjeeling tripartite pact signed for Gorkhaland Territorial Administration". The Times of India. 18 July 2011. Archived from the original on 24 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
  34. ↑ "Solve Gorkha Janmukti Morcha row: Calcutta High Court to poll panel". The Telegraph. 11 March 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  35. ↑ "Cop killed in gunbattle during operation to nab Bimal Gurung near Sikkim - Kolkata News". The Times of India. 14 October 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  36. ↑ Chattopadhyay, Suhrid Sankar (22 October 2020). "Former GJM supremo Bimal Gurung extends support to Mamata Banerjee after being on the run for three years". Frontline. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  37. ↑ "Telangana effect: Gorkha Janmukti Morcha calls indefinite shutdown in Darjeeling". NDTV.com. 30 July 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  38. ↑ Desk, Express Web (13 June 2017). "Darjeeling unrest: GJM, BJP adopt resolution for separate Gorkhaland; 600 paramilitary personnel rushed to hills". The Indian Express. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  39. ↑ "Gorkhaland unrest: Home ministry orders withdrawal of 1,000 paramilitary personnel from Darjeeling-India News , Firstpost". Firstpost. 15 October 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 Khawas, Vimal (2003). "Urban Management in Darjeeling Himalaya: A Case Study of Darjeeling Municipality". The Mountain Forum. Archived from the original on 20 October 2004. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Darjeeling". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2006.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table". Climate-Data.org. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
  43. ↑ Malley, L.S.S. O (1999) [1907]. Bengal District Gazetteer : Darjeeling. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-81-7268-018-3. Archived from the original on 9 May 2016.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 "Station: Darjeeling, Climatological Table 1981–2010" (PDF). Climatological Normals 1981–2010. India Meteorological Department. January 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Station: Darjeeling Climatological Table 1981–2010" (PDF). Climatological Normals 1981–2010. India Meteorological Department. January 2015. pp. 227–228. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
  46. ↑ Sarkar 1999, p. 299.
  47. ↑ Malabi Gupta (26 November 2009). "Brewtal climate: Droughts, storms cracking Darjeeling's teacup". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
  48. ↑ "HOW MUCH IS THE CHANCE OF SNOWFALL IN DARJEELING THIS WINTER SEASON?". 10 December 2019. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  49. ↑ "Darjeeling Weather & Best Time to Visit". Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
  50. ↑ "Snowfall in Darjeeling after ten years thrill tourists". The Times of India. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  51. ↑ "White carpets wrap hill town, Tiger Hill and Ghoom". Retrieved 7 December 2020.
  52. ↑ "Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)" (PDF). India Meteorological Department. December 2016. p. M233. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
  53. ↑ "WMO=42295, UV Index, Darjeeling". Retrieved 9 December 2020.
  54. ↑ "Klimatafel von Darjeeling, West Bengal / Indische Union" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Negi 1992, p. 185.
  56. ↑ Negi 1992, pp. 28–29.
  57. ↑ "Himalayan Tahrs, Blue sheep for Darjeeling Zoo arrive from Japan". The Hindu. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2009.
  58. ↑ TERI (2001). "Sustainable Development in the Darjeeling Hill Area" (PDF). Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi. (TERI Project No.2000UT64). p. 20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 June 2006. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
  59. ↑ Mackintosh 2009, p. 2.
  60. ↑ Negi 1992, pp. 43–48.
  61. ↑ "Snow leopard, red panda get new conservation centre in Darjeeling". The Indian Express. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
  62. ↑ Seglie, Daniele; Roy, D.; Giacoma, Cristina; Mushahiddunnabi, M. (2003). "Distribution and conservation of the Himalayan newt (Tylototriton verrucosus, Urodela, Salamandridae) in the Darjeeling District, West Bengal (India)". Russian Journal of Herpetology. 10: 157–162.
  63. ↑ Shah, Ram Devi Tachamo; Narayan Shah, Deep; Domisch, Sami (2012). "Range shifts of a relict Himalayan dragonfly in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region under climate change scenarios". International Journal of Odonatology. 15 (3): 209–222. doi:10.1080/13887890.2012.697399. ISSN 1388-7890. S2CID 83803104.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 64.4 "Table-4 Population, Decadal Growth Rate, Density and General Sex Ratio by Residence and Sex, West Bengal/ District/ Sub District, 1991 and 2001". Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. 2003. Archived from the original on 27 August 2005. Retrieved 30 April 2006.
  65. ↑ Chauhan, Chanchal (17 May 2017). "Darjeeling Municipality Election Results 2017: GJM keeps Darjeeling, wins 31 seats; TMC 1". India.com. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  66. ↑ Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, pp. 13–17.
  67. ↑ "Gorkhaland Territorial Administration Agreement signed". Outlook. 18 July 2011. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2012.
  68. ↑ "Table-3 District Wise List of Statutory Towns (Municipal Corporation, Municipality, Notified Area and Cantonment Board), Census Towns and Outgrowths, West Bengal, 2001". Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. 2003. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2006.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 "Water Supply". Official webpage. Darjeeling municipality. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 "General Information". Official webpage. Darjeeling municipality. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2010.
  71. ↑ Aftab 2005, p. 186.
  72. ↑ Aftab 2005, p. 187.
  73. ↑ Dam, Mohana (11 June 2009). "Darjeeling to ban plastic altogether". Express India. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  74. ↑ "Roads". Official webpage. Darjeeling municipality. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2010.
  75. ↑ "Darjeeling tea growers at risk". BBC News. 27 July 2001. Archived from the original on 27 March 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Haber, Daniel B. (14 January 2004). "Economy-India: Famed Darjeeling Tea Growers Eye Tourism for Survival". Inter Press Service News Agency. Archived from the original on 2 June 2006. Retrieved 8 May 2006.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Shah, Anudev (19 May 2019). "What the Tea Gardens of Bengal Mean to Female Labourers: A Home that Will Never be their Own". News 18. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  78. ↑ Datta, Moushumi (5 April 2017). "The Status of Marginalized Women Tea Garden Workers in the Mountain Ecosystem of Darjeeling in a Globalised Village". In Chand, R; Nel, E; Pelc, S (eds.). Societies, Social Inequalities and Marginalization. Perspectives on Geographical Marginality. Perspectives on Geographical Marginality. Springer. pp. 53–60. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50998-3_5. ISBN 978-3-319-50998-3.
  79. ↑ "Agriculture". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 29 January 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  80. ↑ Dasgupta 1999, p. 66.
  81. ↑ "Darjeeling hills showing highly positive tourist inflow picture". timesofindia-economictimes. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
  82. ↑ Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, p. 1.
  83. ↑ "Top 10 Indian destinations searched on Google in 2015 : Plus List, News – India Today". India Today. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2015.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Sudha Mahalingam (March 2001). "Darjeeling: Where the journey is the destination". Outlook Traveller. Outlook Publishing (India) Private Limited. Archived from the original on 15 April 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2007.
  85. ↑ "Darjeeling Toy Train". Theme India: Train Tourism in India. IndiaLine. Archived from the original on 7 May 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2009.
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 de Bruyn et al. 2008, p. 578.
  87. ↑ "NH wise Details of NH in respect of Stretches entrusted to NHAI" (PDF). National Highways Authority of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  88. ↑ "World Heritage Committee: Report of the 23rd Session, Marrakesh, 1999". UNESCO. 1999. Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  89. ↑ "Darjeeling ropeway mishap kills four". The Statesman. 20 October 2003. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 30 June 2007.
  90. ↑ Banerjee, Amitava (2 February 2012). "Darjeeling ropeway reopens after more than 8 yrs". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
  91. ↑ "Urban agglomerations/cities having population 1 lakh and above" (PDF). Provisional population totals, census of India 2011. The registrar general & census commissioner, India. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
  92. ↑ "India at a Glance: Sex Ratio". Census of India, 2001. Archived from the original on 13 November 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
  93. ↑ Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, pp. 158–9: "Early Nepali literary stalwarts like Parasmani Pradhan used both the terms Nepali and Gorkha interchangeably... Thus early associations of the Nepalis in India... used the word 'Gorkha' to denote Nepalis of Indian origin".
  94. ↑ Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, pp. 158–9, 162.
  95. ↑ Middleton & Shneiderman 2018, p. Note on Language.
  96. ↑ "Darjiling District Religion Data – Census 2011". Archived from the original on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
  97. ↑ "Basic data sheet, District Darjiling" (PDF). Census of India, 2001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
  98. ↑ "A disaster waiting to happen in Darjeeling". Deccan Herald. 20 July 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  99. ↑ Bhutia, Sherap (July 2014). "Economic Development and Environmental Issues in Darjeeling Himalaya of West Bengal, India: A Theoretical Perspective". International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention. 3 (7): 42–47. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  100. ↑ West Bengal (India) 1980, p. 126.
  101. ↑ "Maghey Sankranti". Government of West Bengal. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 West Bengal (India) 1980, p. 123.
  103. ↑ Agrawal, Shruti (27 February 2020). "Saga Dawa: The blessing of the scriptures". Garland Magazine. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  104. ↑ "Festivals of Darjeeling". Darjeeling Online. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  105. ↑ S.S. Chattopadhyay (December 2003). "The spirit of Darjeeling". Frontline. 20 (25). Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
  106. ↑ "Darjeeling's British legacy: A journey in time". The Hindustan Times. 11 June 2017. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  107. ↑ "Planters Club members want lost glory back". The Statesman. 14 February 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  108. ↑ Dasgupta, Suryendu; Garg, Pushplata (November 2016). "Transformation of Architectural Character of Darjeeling". Urban heritage conservation of Colonial hill stations of India: A case of Darjeeling. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  109. ↑ Bhattacharya 2013, p. 442–61.
  110. ↑ "A Peace Pagoda Pathway: Discover The Lesser-Seen Locations Around India". Outlook Traveller. 5 September 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 111.2 "People & Culture". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  112. ↑ Tamang, Sarkar & Hesseltine 1988, p. 376.
  113. ↑ Tamang, Sarkar & Hesseltine 1988, p. 375.
  114. ↑ Tamang, Sarkar & Hesseltine 1988, p. 382.
  115. ↑ H. Ä. Jaschke (1881). A Tibetan-English Dictionary (1987 reprint ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. p. 341. ISBN 978-81-208-0321-3.
  116. ↑ Lal, V. "Hill Stations: Pinnacles of the Raj". UCLA Social Sciences Computing. Archived from the original on 22 June 2001.
  117. ↑ "Educational Institutes". Official webpage. Darjeeling district. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.

References change

Further reading change

  • Besky, Sarah (2014). Th e Darjeeling Distinction: Labor and Justice on Fair-Trade Tea Plantations in India. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27739-7.
  • Bradnock, R (2004). Footprint India Handbook (13th ed.). Footprint Handbooks. ISBN 978-1-904777-00-7.
  • Brown, Percy (1917). Tours in Sikhim and the Darjeeling District (3rd (1934) ed.). Calcutta: W. Newman & Co. p. 223. ASIN B0008B2MIY.
  • Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2
  • Kennedy, Dane (1996). Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj. University of California Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-520-20188-0.
  • Koehler, Jeff (2014). Darjeeling: The Colorful History and Precarious Fate of the World's Greatest Tea. New York, London, New Delhi, Sydney: Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781620405147.
  • Lee, Ada (1971). The Darjeeling disaster: Triumph through sorrow: the triumph of the six Lee children. Lee Memorial Mission. ASIN B0007AUX00.
  • Marshal, Julie G. (2005). Britain and Tibet 1765–1947: A select annotated bibliography of British relations with Tibet and the Himalayan states including Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-33647-3.
  • Newman's Guide to Darjeeling and Its Surroundings, Historical & Descriptive, with Some Account of the Manners and Customs of the Neighbouring Hill Tribes, and a Chapter on Thibet and the Thibetans. W. Newman and Co. 1900.
  • Ronaldshay, The Earl of (1923). Lands of the Thunderbolt. Sikhim, Chumbi & Bhutan. London: Constable & Co. ISBN 81-206-1504-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  • Roy, Barun (2003). Fallen Cicada - Unwritten History of Darjeeling Hills (2003 ed.). Beacon Publication. p. 223. ISBN 978-81-223-0684-2.
  • Saraswati, Baidyanath, ed. (1998). Cultural Dimension of Ecology. DK Print World Pvt. Ltd, India. ISBN 978-81-246-0102-0.
  • Sen, Debrati (2017). Everyday Sustainability: Gender Justic and Fair Trade Tea in Darjeeling. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9781438467139. LCCN 2016054530.
  • Singh, S. (2006). Lonely Planet India (11th ed.). Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 978-1-74059-694-7.
  • Waddell, L.A. (2004). Among the Himalayas. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7661-8918-8.
  • Waterhouse, David M., ed. (2004). The Origin of Himalayan Studies: Brian Houghton Hodgson in Nepal and Darjeeling 1820–1858. Abington, UK and New York: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-31215-9.

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