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Philippine-American War
Date Philippine–American War: February 4, 1899 – July 2, 1902 (3 years, 4 months and 4 weeks) Moro Rebellion: February 4, 1899 – June 15, 1913 (14 years, 4 months, 1 week and 4 days) Location Philippines Result American victory America took control of the Philippines, the First Philippine Republic was dissolved Territorial changes The Philippines became part of the United States, though not fully joined (until 1946).
Belligerents
1899–1902: United States Military Government	1899–1902: Philippine Republic Negros Republic Zamboanga Republic Limited foreign support: Empire of Japan German Empire
1902–1913: United States Philippine Insular Government	1902–1906: Tagalog Republic 1899–1905: Maguindanao Sultanate 1899–1913: Sulu Sultanate
Commanders and leaders
Jacob G. Schurman William Howard Taft Elwell Stephen Otis Arthur MacArthur Jr. Adna Chaffee Henry Lawton † Frederick N. Funston J. Franklin Bell Leonard Wood Tasker H. Bliss John J. Pershing	Emilio Aguinaldo Apolinario Mabini Antonio Luna † Artemio Ricarte José Alejandrino Miguel Malvar Gregorio del Pilar † Dionisio Seguela Vicente Alvarez Gregorio Aglipay Macario Sakay  Datu Ali † Jamalul Kiram II
Units involved
1899–1902: US Army US Marine Corps US Navy Macabebe Scouts 1902–1913: Philippine Scouts Philippine Constabulary	1899–1902: Philippine Republican Army Philippine Republican Navy Babaylanes Pulajanes Supported by: Ishin Shishi 1902–1913 Irreconcilables Babaylanes Pulajanes Moro people
Strength
≈126,000 total ≈24,000 to ≈44,000 field strength	≈80,000–100,000 regular and irregular
Casualties and losses
4,200 killed, 2,818 wounded, several died due to sickness	About 10,000 killed (Emilio Aguinaldo estimate), 16,000–20,000 killed (American estimate)
Filipino civilians: Around 200,000 to 250,000 people died, mostly due to hunger and sickness; see "Casualties".

The Philippine-American War (also Philippine Insurrection, Filipino-American War, Tagalog Insurgency) was a conflict between the First Philippine Republic and the United States. It lasted from February 4, 1899 until July 2, 1902.

Problems started when the United States did not accept the declaration of independence by the Philippines, Instead of accepting the declaration, the United States took control of the Philippines. The conflict was started after Spain gave up all the countries it controlled because of the Treaty of Paris in 1898. This took place after the the United States won the Spanish-American War. This war was a part of the Philippines' fight for independence. The Philippines began their revolt against Spanish rule in 1896.

Fighting between the Philippines and the United States started on February 4, 1899 at the Battle of Manila. The First Philippine Republic declared war on June 2, 1899. The Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo was captured on March 23, 1901. The American government said the war was over and that they had won it on July 2, 1902. Some Philippine groups did not accept this and kept fighting for several more years. One of these groups included veterans of the Katipunan. Other groups, such as the Moro peoples and Pulahan religious movements, also continued to fight. The Moro Rebellion ended on June 15, 1913.

The war resulted in the deaths of at least 200,000 Filipino civilians. Most of these deaths were caused by diseases and famine. Some estimates say that the number of dead people could be as high as one million. Both sides committed very bad acts during the fighting. The United States used attacks in retaliation for the Filipino guerrilla tactics. They also used a "scorched earth" strategy. Many civilians were put into concentration camps. Thousands of people died in these camps. .

The war and the U.S. occupation had a large impact on the culture of the Philippines. It led to the rise of Protestantism, the decline of the Catholic Church, and the introduction of English as the primary language.

Background

By late 1897, the Spanish forces have taken control again of most territory the rebels had taken. Both sides entered an agreement to stop fighting as Aguinaldo prepares the Republic of Biak-na-Bato, while being surrounded by Spanish forces in Bulacan.

The Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed on December 14, 1897, where the Spanish colonial government promised Aguinaldo $MXN800,000 in three installments _{(divided payment made in intervals)} if he would go into exile outside the country.

Aguinaldo and his associates went to Hong Kong after receiving the first installment. He discouraged further combat before he left, convinced rebel combatants to disarm, and declared bandits those who will continue hostilities. However, according to Aguinaldo, the Spanish never paid the following agreement installments.

On April 22, 1898, Aguinaldo decided to continue to lead the Philippine Revolution again after having met in private with United States Consul E. Spencer Pratt in Singapore. According to Aguinaldo, Pratt passed the assurances from Commodore George Dewey that the United States will recognize the independence of the Philippines. However, Pratt and Dewey both contested this statement and claims that no such talks happened.

On April 27, 1898, Aguinaldo left Singapore and arrived in Hong Kong on May 1. On the same day of his return was the Battle of Manila, where the Spanish Pacific Squadron was defeated. On May 17, he left Hong Kong aboard USRC McCulloch and arrived in Cavite on May 19.

Less than three months after Aguinaldo's return, the Philippine Revolutionary Army had occupied nearly all of the Philippines, except Manila. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared independence in his house in Cavite El Viejo.

This declaration was not recognized by the United States or Spain. On December 10, 1898, the 1898 Treaty of Paris was signed. Spain transferred the Philippines under the United States government as compensation for Spain's expenses and lost assets.

Origins of the conflict

Battle of Manila

On July 9, General Anderson told Major General Henry Clark Corbin, who is in charge of the U.S. Army, that Aguinaldo has declared himself Dictator and President. He is trying to take control of Manila without American assistance. General Anderson thinks that it is unlikely to happen, but if it does, it would make it difficult for the U.S. to establish a temporary government. On July 15, Aguinaldo issued three decrees that gave him power over the Philippines.

On July 18, Anderson expressed his suspicion that Aguinaldo was secretly negotiating with the Spanish authorities. In a letter dated July 21 to Major General Corbin, Anderson stated that Aguinaldo had established a complex military government under his self-proclaimed authority as Dictator. Also, Aguinaldo had stopped the provision of supplies to the U.S. forces without his approval. Anderson also wrote to Aguinaldo that the request of supplies should be given, and that he should aid in doing so.

On July 24, Aguinaldo wrote a letter to Anderson, warning him not to place American troops in Filipino-occupied areas before informing him. The official historian of the Philippine Expedition, Murat Halstead, writes that General Merritt commented shortly after his arrival on June 25,

As Aguinaldo did not visit me on my arrival, he did not offer his services as a lesser military leader, and as my orders from the President fully intend the American occupation of the islands, I did not consider to hold any direct communication with him until I have Manila. I would not be in a position to implement my rule until then, in case his aims would go against mine. _(rephrased)

U.S. commanders assumed that Aguinaldo's forces were telling Spanish of the American movements. U.S. Army Major John R. M. Taylor, after analyzing Filipino documents, wrote,

The officers who thought the Filipinos were telling the Spaniards of American movements were right. Sastrón got a letter from Pio del Pilar, dated July 30, to the Spanish officer commanding at Santa Ana. Pilar told the Spanish that, according to Aguinaldo, the Americans would attack the Spanish forces on August 2, and that they hold their positions. Pilar added, if the Spaniards should retreat and surrender Santa Ana to himself, he would defend it with his men. The information was correct and eight American soldiers were killed or wounded by Spanish forces. _(rephrased)

It was secretly agreed by Commodore Dewey, Brigadier General Wesley Merritt with new Spanish Governor-General Fermín Jáudenes and with former Governor-General Basilio Augustín, that the Spaniards surrender only to the Americans. To avoid dishonor and humiliation, the Spanish surrender would take place after they lose a mock battle in Manila, where the Filipinos would not be allowed to enter. On the eve of the battle, Anderson told Aguinaldo to not allow his troops to enter Manila without permission from an American commander, and that they would be fired upon if they did. On August 13, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish.

Before the mock battle, America and Philippines had been unofficially allied against Spain. Afterwards, Spanish and Americans were in an agreement that excluded the Filipinos.

Fighting between the American and Filipino troops almost broke out as the Americans moved to push the Filipinos away from strategic positions around Manila. The Filipinos were angered at being denied entry to their own capital, but Aguinaldo decided to wait. Relations continued to worsen as it became clear to the Filipinos that the Americans had no plans of leaving the islands.

End of the Spanish-American War

On August 12, 1898, The New York Times reported that U.S. and Spain had signed a peace agreement. The Article III of the agreement says that the U.S. will temporarily maintain control over Manila until a peace treaty is finalized. The treaty is also said to decide the future control over the Philippines. After the end of the agreement, U.S. President McKinley announced the end of conflicts with Spain.

Minor skirmishes and First Philippine Republic

In a fight at Cavite between U.S. soldiers and revolutionaries on August 24, 1898, George Hudson from Utah regiment was killed, Corporal William Anderson was fatally wounded, and four troopers of the Fourth Cavalry were slightly wounded. This angered General Anderson to send Aguinaldo a letter saying that to avoid further trouble, he demands the immediate removal of his forces from Cavite. However, the Americans were drunk at the time according to the reports of the revolutionaries. Halstead recalled that Aguinaldo apologized and promised to punish the offenders. Apolinario Mabini firstly proposed to investigate and punish any offenders found. Aguinaldo changed this, saying that Hudson was not killed by the revolutionaries but by the Americans themselves, since they were drunk. On the other hand, a revolutionary officer in Cavite told that he participated against the Americans on the afternoon of August 24, under the orders of the post commander.

The Revolutionary Government held elections between June and September 10, which created a legislative body called the Malolos Congress. The Malolos Constitution was implemented after a session between September 15 and November 13. It was declared on January 21, 1899, creating the First Philippine Republic, often credited as the first constitutional republic in Asia.

Treaty of Paris (1898)

Article V of the August 12 peace protocol had ordered negotiations to start in Paris, no later than October 1, 1898. President McKinley sent a five-man commission, which was first instructed to demand Luzon _{(northern region of the country)}, Guam, and Puerto Rico. The demands would provide a limited U.S. empire, consisted of specific colonies, to support its global fleet and communication links.

In Paris, the commission was overwhelmed with advice to demand the entire Philippine islands and later decided that it would be reasonable to take the entire country than just a portion. On October 28, 1898, McKinley told that to demand Luzon while leaving the islands under Spanish rule or subject of future disputes cannot be justified in any way. He stated that the entire islands be surrendered or none at all, further insisting that to give none is unacceptable. Much to the Spaniards' dismay, their wounded pride is relieved with an offer of twenty million dollars for the islands within three months after the treaty's approval, to which they soon agreed. On December 10, 1898, the U.S. and Spain officially signed the Treaty of Paris, formally ending the Spanish-American War.

In the U.S., there was an advocacy for Philippine independence. Supporters said that U.S. had no right over a land where people wanted self-government. In 1898, industrialist Andrew Carnegie offered the U.S. government $20 million for Philippines' independence. Those who supported the control of the islands argued that other colonial power would have seized them if they did not do so.

Benevolent assimilation

On December 21, 1898, McKinley issued a declaration known as "benevolent assimilation _{(humane integration of the islands)}." In this declaration, he stated that the U.S. would replace the 'authoritarian' rule with a proper and rightful governance for the benefit of the people. He referred to the Treaty of Paris that stated that the U.S. had acquired control of the country as a result of their military victories. The declaration ordered General Otis, to inform the Filipinos that the U.S. came as friends and would apply authority to protect their lives, property, and rights.

On December 26, the Spanish surrendered Iloilo to the Filipinos. On December 26, an American brigade under General Marcus P. Miller sailed to Iloilo, arriving on 28, and opened communications with the revolutionaries. A Filipino official called "President Lopez of the Federal Government of the Visayas," said that landing on the shore needs orders from the central government of Luzon.

Otis' fig-leaf version

Major General E. S. Otis, who had been assigned as Military Governor of the Philippines, had delayed publication of McKinley's proclamation. On January 4, Otis published a modified, fig-leaf version _{(censorship removing anything that seems offensive)}, to not include the clear meanings of the terms sovereignty, protection, and right of cessation. On January 6, 1899, Otis was quoted in The New York Times saying that the U.S. aimed to create a modern, mature and inclusive rule in which the people would have full representation while maintaining law and order. He believed that this government would improve over time until it is free and independent as one of the most privileged regions in the world.

Otis did not know that the War Department had also sent a copy of the declaration to Miller for informational purposes. Miller thought that it was to be distributed, as he also did not know that Otis published a modified version. He published the original in both Spanish and Tagalog translations which Aguinaldo happened to read. Aguinaldo did not miss the meaning of the alteration, which he found offensive. He knew that Otis changed it without approval from Washington.

Aguinaldo issued a counter-declaration on January 5,

These actions which are way-out from the norms of civilized nations, have given me the power to act outside the usual rules of engagement and diplomacy. However, in order to remain fair, I sent to commissioners to General Otis to urge him to leave his careless attempt, but they were not listened to. My government cannot stand sleepily while a nation, which claims to be the protector of abused countries, violently seize a part of our territory. So, my government is prepared to fight if American troops attempt to occupy the Visayan Islands. I criticize these actions so that the values of humanity can pass its steady judgment on the true abusers. _(rephrased)

After some copies of the declaration had been distributed, Aguinaldo issued another declaration, which was published the same day in El Heraldo de la Revolucion (The Supporter of the Revolution), the official newspaper of the Philippine Republic. He stated,

In response to General Otis' declaration, which referred to instructions edited by the President of the United States about the government of the Philippine Islands, I, for the interest and benefit of the Filipino people, sternly complain against this violation on our island's freedom. As the Filipino people made me their president, I declare it to be my duty to defend my country's liberty and independence to death. I make this protest in the name of God, the ultimate source of justice and rightful authority. _(rephrased)

Further escalations

Otis saw the two declarations comparable to hinting a war. He enhanced American observation posts and put his troops on alert. On the other hand, Aguinaldo's declarations motivated the masses with a firm readiness to fight what they thought was an ally, but is actually their enemy. In the tense situation, about 40,000 Filipinos left Manila within 15 days.

Meanwhile, Felipe Agoncillo was now in Washington. He was previously assigned by the Philippine Government as an envoy _{(foreign minister)} to negotiate with foreign governments, and had previously attempted, but failed, to participate in the talks between U.S. and Spain in Paris. On January 6, he filed a request for an interview with the President to discuss matters and concerns about the Philippines. The government officials were surprised to learn that messages to Otis to deal mildly with the revolutionaries and not provoke them had been known to Agoncillo, which he then told to Aguinaldo. At the same time came Aguinaldo's protest against Otis calling himself "Military Governor of the Philippines."

On January 8, Agoncillo stated the following,

In my opinion, the Filipino people, who I represent, will never agree to become a colony of the United States. The Filipino army have committed their lives that they will not disarm and surrender until General Aguinaldo tells them to do so. I feel confident. _(rephrased)

The Filipino committees in London, Paris, and Madrid telegraphed to President McKinley as follows,

We protest against the landing of American troops at Iloilo. The American claim to Philippines' sovereignty is abrupt. We ask you to please reconsider the resolution about Iloilo. The Filipinos wish for the friendship of America and strongly reject militarism and trickery.

The New York Times reported on January 8, that two Americans guarding a boat in Iloilo was attacked. It was also added that the revolutionaries were planning to burn down the business section of the city. According to them also, a peaceful solution could have been made but Aguinaldo threatened to drive the Americans away. By January 10, the revolutionaries were ready to fight, but if possible, lure the Americans to shoot first. They increased their unfriendly actions, well shown by the following telegram sent by Colonel Cailles to Aguinaldo on January 10, 1899,

This is important. An American told me to move our troops 38 meters away from Maytubig. I would not do so. Instead, I would move forward a little. He brings a letter from his general, where he speaks to me as a friend. I said, that from the day I knew that McKinley was against our independence, I did not want to talk to the Americans. War is what we want. The Americans left disappointed after I spoke. _(rephrased)

Aguinaldo liked what Cailles did, and replied in a letter,

I like and support what you have told them, as well as my soldiers there. I think they are tricking us until their forces arrive, but I will send an order and will always be ready. _(rephrased)

On January 31, the Minister of Interior Teodoro Sandiko signed an order that President Aguinaldo orders all available land be used for planting to provide food, as preparation of an upcoming war against the Americans.