Wikipedia

Independent State of Croatia

World War II-era puppet state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy (April 1941-May 1945)

The Independent State of Croatia (in Croatian Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, shortened as the NDH) was a puppet state created during World War II.[1][2] It was created in April 1941, when Yugoslavia was split up by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. It included most of what is now Croatia as well as all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of Slovenia and Serbia.

Flag from 1941-1945
Independent State of Croatia

Overview

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The NDH was ruled by Ante Pavelić and his Ustaše. The Ustaše were a far-right terrorist group[3] that was created when its members left the Croatian Party of Rights.[4] The Ustashe had a plan to remove the country of Serbs. This would be achieved through mass killings, forced expulsions, and forced assimilation. Part of this plan started during WWII by genocides in the Jasenovac concentration camp and other places all over the country.[5]

Establishment

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Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941. The whole country was occupied by Axis forces. Hitler and Mussolini made the Ustashe the leaders of the new Croatian state.

The establishment of the state was proclaimed on April 10, 1941 by Slavko Kvaternik, deputy leader of the Ustashe. Ante Pavelić became the leader (Poglavnik) of Croatia. Italy also made Prince Aimone, the Duke of Aosta, as the King of Croatia. The king did not hold any power however. All real power was with Ante Pavelic and his Ustashe. The Ustashe created a totalitarian state.

Motives for establishment

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The puppet state was created by Germany and Italy to ease efforts to prepare for Operation Barbarossa. Hitler wanted to create a puppet state in Croatia, because that would allow him to keep occupation forces to a minimum. The state was also forced to cede territory to Italy and was prevented from having a navy. These demonstrated the dependence of the country upon the Axis powers.

Genocides

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Prelude

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Racial laws

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The first "Legal order for the defense of the people and the state" dated April 17, 1941 ordered the death penalty for "infringement of the honour and vital interests of the Croatian people and the survival of the Independent State of Croatia". It was soon followed by the "Legal order of races" and the "Legal order of the protection of Aryan blood and the honour of the Croatian people" dated April 30, 1941, as well as the "Order of the creation and definition of the racial-political committee" dated June 4, 1941. The enforcement of these legal acts was done not only through normal courts but also new out-of-order courts as well as mobile courts-martial with extended jurisdictions.

Ethnic composition within controlled territories

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Most of the NDH population was not Croat, mostly because of the inclusion of Bosnia. It had significant populations of Serbs – about 19% of the population of Croatia at the time and over 30% of the population of NDH. Bosnian Muslims – the largest population group of Bosnia at the time and over 10% of the population of NDH – Germans, Hungarians and others. The Catholics – mainly Croats, Germans and Magyars – constituted just over 50% of the 6.3 million population.

Mile Budak, politician and minister of the NDH – also a Croatian writer – immediately took the chance to declare the Muslims as Brothers and wanted to force them to convert to Christianity. Many Croatians agree with the idea that the majority of Bosnian Muslims are actually Croatians who were converted to Islam during the invasion of the Turks in the 15th Century.

Beginning

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Muslim ethnic cleansing

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Many Bosnian Muslims were accepted the NDH – in many cases were forced to accept it under the penalty of converting to Christianity or being executed – and immediately became involved. The most infamous of Islamic Ustase divisions was the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar.

In respect to the soldiers of Muslim faith, a mosque was built in Zagreb – Croatia's capital city – known as the "Poglavnikova dzamija" or Poglavnik's Mosque. Despite Pavelić's assurances of equality with the Croats, many Muslims quickly became dissatisfied with Croatian rule. A Muslim leader reported that not one Muslim occupied an influential post in the administration.[source?]

Fierce fighting broke out between the Ustaše, Chetniks and Yugoslav Partisans in NDH territory. Some Ustaše militia units became convinced that the Muslims were communist sympathizers, and burned their villages and murdered many civilians.[6] The Ustase almost immediately enacted racial laws that reflected the acceptance of the ideology of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, with an emphasis placed on Croatian national issues.[source?]

Genocide of Jews, Roma and Serbs

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The normal jails could no longer sustain the rate of new inmates and the Ustaša government started preparing the grounds what would become the Jasenovac concentration camp by July 1941. The regime would eventually form concentration camps in eleven different locations. The Ustaše started conducting a deliberate campaign of mass murder, deportation and forced conversions to do away with the Serbs. The Jews and Roma were set for total annihilation.[5] The Jasenovac concentration camp would become the place of murder of up to 100,000, with some estimates claiming that this camp was the third largest camp of WWII. Overall Ustase death count is estimated at around 600,000, but all written records were destroyed to cover it up.[5]

Atrocities

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The state of permanent terror, mass killing, raping women and looting properties of their victims in the Independet State of Croatia forced, primarily, the Serbs to rebel. According to the Glaise von Horstenau [7] reports, Hitler was angry with Pavelić whose policy inflamed the rebellion in Croatia - by which Hitler lost ability to engage the Independent State of Croatia forces on the Eastern Front.

Moreover, Hitler was forced to engage his forces in quelling the rebellion. For that reason, Hitler summoned Pavelić to his war headquoters in Vinica (Ukraine) on September 23, 1942. Consequently, Pavelić replaced his minister of the Armed Forces, Slavko Kvaternik, with the less zealous Jure Francetić. Before meeting Hitler, to appease the public, Pavelić published the Važna obavijest Vlade ("Important Government's Announcement") in which he threatened those spreading news,

[A]bout non-existent threats of disarmament of the Ustashe units by representatives of one foreign power, about the Croatian Army replacement by a foreign army, about the possibility that a foreign power would seize the power in Croatia.

Connections with the Roman Catholic Church

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Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) shaking hands with Alberto Vassallo-Torregrossa (1865–1959), a high-ranking Vatican clergy in Bavaria, Nazi Germany.
 
Pope Pius XII kept diplomatic relations with the Ustaše state throughout WWII.

Throughout the Catholic Ustaše-led NDH's existence, the Roman Catholic Church played a significant role in Ustaše's genocides.[8] Alojzije Cardinal Stepinac, then the Archbishop of Zagreb, was seen by the survivors as an Ustaše war criminal.[8] Stepinac was crucial in the Church's decision to sponsor the Ustaše due to his perception that the Ustaše was the[8]

NDH leadership

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In May 1941, Pope Pius XII met the NDH leader Ante Pavelić – a devout Catholic himself – with Stepinac. It was followed by Pope Pius XII's posting of Giuseppe Ramiro Marcone (1882–1952) as his rep to the NDH,[8] despite Pope Pius XII's clear knowledge of the ongoing genocides of Croatian Jews, Roma and Serbs.[8] Aligned with the Pope's will, Stepinac only disagreed with brutalizing Catholic Jews, but not the vast majority of non-Catholic Jews.[8]

Pogroms

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Pogroms against Croatian Jews, Roma and Serbs were often incited by Catholic priests who hated the presence of non-Catholics in their parishes.[8] To avoid immediate death, many Serbs were forced to convert to Catholicism, while Jews who converted were still killed as the Ustaše regime followed the Nazi racial policies on seeking to wipe out Jews as a race rather than a religion.[8][9]

Under subordinate bishops' pressure, Stepinac told the Pope that they would ask Pavelić to stop the massacres and forced conversions, while sending Pavelić a different letter in which they asked for neither to stop.[8] Instead, they asked Pavelić to delegate them the conversion authority to make the persecutions look more "humane".[8]

Support for the NDH

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In April 1942, Stepinac visited the Vatican for the second time, when he presented a report to Vatican's State Secretary Luigi Cardinal Maglione that praised the Ustaše regime's crackdown on abortion and pornography,[8] while denying that Ustaše's genocides were planned.[8] The Vatican kept full diplomatic relations with the NDH until its defeat in 1945.[8]

To stay friendly with the Jews, Stepinac arranged for Chief Rabbi Freiburg of Zagreb to write the Pope a letter to thank him for the help, which the Church had not actually offered.[8] Chief Rabbi Freiburg of Zagreb was killed in the Auschwitz concentration camp on 8 May 1943 upon arrival for protesting the Nazi brutalization of his fellow Jews.[10]

Participation in the Holocaust

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Contrary to the common perception that the Roman Catholic Church was opposed to Nazism and the Holocaust, priests and bishops throughout the Church hierarchy were highly sympathetic to them due to classical antisemitism and their belief that Nazi Germany was the "lesser evil".[8][9]

Within the lower clergy, many Jesuits and Franciscans were Ustaše members, who persecuted or massacred Jews, Roma and Serbs for the Ustaše regime.[8] Some prominent Catholic perpetrators included Ivan Guberina, Mate Mugoš and Franciscan Father Bojanović,[8] while Franciscan Dionizije Juričev and Radoslav Glavaš served as the head of the Religious Section (VO) and head of the Religious Department of the Ministry of Justice and Religion respectively to oversee forced conversions within NDH territory.[8]

Miroslav Filipović-Majstorović, the operator of the Jasenovac concentration camp in which 77,000–99,000 were killed,[5] was a Franciscan. In addition, Catholic priest Božidar Bralo served as the security police chief in Sarajevo to target Jews while Dyonisy Juričev as an Ustaše newspaper editor calling for all bishops to join the Ustaše to kill Jews.[8] 81% of Croatian Jews were killed in the Holocaust.[9][5]

Critique

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In his 1999 book Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII,[11] British author and journalist John Cornwell pointed out that[12]

  1. Pope Pius XII's allegedly anti-Nazi sermons never mentioned Jews
  2. Pope Pius XII was silent after the Nazi roundup of 1,200 Jews below the Vatican hill on 16 October 1943[13]
  3. the reason for (1.) and (2.) was Pope Pius XII's lifelong antisemitism preventing him from developing sympathy for Jews
  4. Defenders of Pope Pius XII promoted lies to make him look like a hero by misclassifying his neutral correspondence with the Nazis as "protests" and overstating his interventions in Nazi deportations of Jews[14][15]

Relations with Nazi Germany

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Hans Helm, the appointed head of Gestapo for the NDH, in his confidential report – under the title Basis of the partisan danger and sent to General Kasche of January 14, 1943 – wrote,[7]

Most of the partisan ranks are coming from the Serbs [. ...] the new regime in Croatia started the programs of annihilation and destruction of the Serbs [. ...] publicly supported by the highest ranks of the Croatian government [...] The fact that a different talk was coming from the official Ustashe side [...] leaves no possibility to compensate the harm caused by, for example, Dr. Mile Budak, the actual (Croatian) minister in Berlin.

Appointed general Horstenau wrote in his report,[source?]

Ustashe movement is, due to the mistakes and atrocities they have made, and the corruption, so compromised that the government executive branch (the homeguard and the police) shall be separated from the government – even for the price of breaking any possible connection with the government.

Disestablishment

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  • August 1944
    • A failed coup attempt by Mladen Lorković and Ante Vokić against Ante Pavelić, the leader of the NDH, resulted in the execution of the conspirators.
  • Early 1945
    • The NDH army, along with German and Cossack troops, withdrew towards Zagreb as the Yugoslav Partisan forces, led by Josip Broz Tito, advanced.
    • The NDH government began to disintegrate, and many officials fled the country.
  • May 1945
    • On May 6, the Yugoslav Partisan forces entered Zagreb, and the NDH government officially ceased to exist.
    • Between May 10 and 15, a large column of Ustaša supporters, NDH soldiers, and civilians retreated towards Austria and Italy.
    • Ante Pavelić fled to Austria, Italy, and eventually Argentina.
    • The British Army turned over many of the retreating troops and civilians to the Yugoslav Partisan forces.
    • On May 25, the last remnants of the NDH army surrendered, marking the final end of the Independent State of Croatia.

Aftermath

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The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was established, with Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina as two of its six constituent republics. Many former NDH officials and soldiers were tried and executed for war crimes and crimes against humanity between 1945 and 1949.[source?]

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References

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  • Alfio Russo: Revoluzione in Jugoslavia, Roma 1944.
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, Edition 1991, Macropedia, Vol. 29, page 1111.
  • Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Vol. 2, Independent State of Croatia entry.
  • Encyclopædia Britannica, 1943 - Book of the year, page 215, Entry: Croatia
  • Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Europe, edition 1995, page 91, entry: Croatia
  • Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat: Der Kroatische Ustascha-Staat, 1941-1945 Stuttgart, 1964
  • Helen Fein: Accounting for Genocide - Victims and Survivors of the Holocaust, The Free Press, New York, Edition 1979, pages 102, 103.
  • Hermann Neubacher: Sonderauftrag Suedost 1940-1945, Bericht eines fliegendes Diplomaten, 2. durchgesehene Auflage, Goettingen 1956

Notes

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  1. ↑ "International Law Reports" by Lauterpacht, C. J. Greenwood, Cambridge University Press 1957 Page 69
    Croatia is defined by contemporary writers as a 'puppet-state' or 'puppet-government', terms which appear to be of comparatively recent adoption in the field of international law.
  2. ↑ "International Law in Historical Perspective" by Jan Hendrik Willem Verzijl, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1974 Page 313
    CROATIA A very special case is that of the puppet State of Croatia, called into being with the help of Fascist Italy in April 1941
  3. ↑
    • "Political Parties of Europe" by Skowronski, Sharon, Vincent E. McHale Greenwood Press 1983 Page 1046
      USTASHE. The Ustashe was a Croatian terrorist organization formed on January 8 1929 by Ante Pavelic, secretary of Party of Rights merged into and provided the political core of the Ustashe ...
    • "Croatia: between Europe and the Balkans" by William Bartlett, Routledge 2003 Page 18
      Croatian Party of Right, had established a terrorist organization known as the Ustashe Croatian Revolutionary Organization
    • "Organizing for Total War" by American Academy of Political and Social Science, Francis James Brown, American Academy of Political and Social Science 1942 Page 225
      As an interesting detail for the American public it may be reported that the terrorist organization Ustashe, paid by the Italians, was sending money to the ...
    • "Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition" by Cathie Carmichael, Routledge 2003 Page 53
      The anti-Serb sentiment of the Ustasa was of relatively recent historical vintage, having been initiated by the ninetheenth-century Croat writer Starcevic, founder of the Croatian Party of Rights (Hrvatska Stranka Prava HSP)
    • "All Or Nothing: The Axis and the Holocaust, 1941-1943" by Jonathan Steinberg Routledge 2002 pages 29-30
      By 28 June (1941) Glaise von Horstenau reported that 'according to reliable reports from countless German military and civil observers during the last few weeks the Ustasi have gone raging mad" Serbian and Jewish men, women were literary hacked to death. Whole villages were razed to the ground and the people driven into barns to which the Ustasi set fire.
    • Hitler's Renegades: Foreign Nationals in the Service of the Third Reich" by Christopher J Ailsby, Brassey's 2004 Page 156
      One of the Horstenau's reports stated: "We saw no sign of guerillas but there were plenty of ownerless horses and cattle, not to mention innumerable geese. At Crkveni Bok, an unhappy place where, under the leadership of Ustase lieutenant-colonel, some 500 country folk from 15 to 20 years had met their end, all murdered, the women raped then tortured, the chidren killed. I saw in the River Sava a woman's corpse with the eyes gouged out and a stick showed into the sexual parts. The woman was at most 20 years old when she fell into the hands of these monsters. Anywhere in a corner, the pigs are gorging themselves on an unburied human being. All the houses were looted. The 'lucky' inhabitants were consigned to one of the fearsome boxcar trains; many of these involuntary 'passengers' cut their veins on the journey."
  4. ↑ Blood And Homeland": Eugenics And Racial Nationalism in Central And Southeast Europe, 1900-1940 edited by Marius Turda, Paul Weindling Published 2006 Central European University Press Rory Yeomans article: Of "Yugoslav Barbarians" and Croatian Gentlemen Scholars: Nationalist Ideology and Racial Anthropology in Interwar Yugoslavia
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
    • "Jasenovac". Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
    • "Concentration Camps: Jasenovac". Jewish Virtual Library. doi:10.1080/00085006.2024.2356453. ISBN 978-1-032-35379-1. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
    • Odak, Stipe; Benčić, Andriana (July 10, 2016). "Jasenovac—A Past That Does Not Pass: The Presence of Jasenovac in Croatian and Serbian Collective Memory of Conflict". East European Politics and Societies: and Cultures. 30 (4). doi:10.1177/0888325416653657. Retrieved December 11, 2024.
    • Kuznar, Andriana Bencic; Pavlakovic, Vjeran (May 10, 2023). "Exhibiting Jasenovac: Controversies, manipulations and politics of memory". Heritage, Memory and Conflict Journal. 3 (1). Amsterdam University Press: 65–69. doi:10.3897/ijhmc.3.71583. Retrieved December 11, 2024.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
    • Marko Attila Hoare (June 5, 2024). "Jasenovac concentration camp: an unfinished past". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 66 (1–2): 291–293. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
  6. ↑ Lepre 1997, pp. 15–16.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Hebrang, by Zvonko Ivanković - Vonta, Scientia Yugoslavica 1988 Pages 169-170
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2
  10. ↑ Zubrinic, Darko (1997). "Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac and saving the Jews in Croatia during the WW2". Croatian History. Zagreb, Croatia. Retrieved December 27, 2024.
  11. ↑ Cornwell, John (2000). Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII. Penguin Books. Retrieved December 28, 2024.
  12. ↑ Carroll, James (October 1, 1999). "The Holocaust and the Catholic Church". The Atlantic. Retrieved December 28, 2024. Some in the Vatican want to make Pius XII a saint. If they succeed, "the Church will have sealed its second millennium with a lie."
  13. ↑ most of whom were then gassed in the Auschwitz concentration camp in Nazi-occupied Poland.
  14. ↑ Morley, John F. (1980). Vatican Diplomacy and the Jews during the Holocaust, 1939–1943. Ktav Pub & Distributors Inc. ISBN 9780870687013. Retrieved December 28, 2024.
  15. ↑ "Working Definition of Holocaust Denial and Distortion". International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA). 2024. Retrieved December 28, 2024.

Other websites

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