Syrian civil war
The Syrian civil war, also known as the Syrian Uprising (Arabic: الثورة السورية),[112] or Syrian Crisis (Arabic: الأزمة السورية),[113] is an ongoing armed conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic. The conflict started in 2011 after the Syrian government, led by Bashar al-Assad, violently stopped pro-democracy demonstrations in the city of Daraa, resulting in a deathly struggle between the Syrian regime and multiple opposition groups.[114][115][116] Since then, it has developed to be one of the deadliest conflicts in the 21st century.[117] More than 614,000 people have been killed, and more than 5 million have been displaced, forming the largest refugee crisis in the world.[118]
Syrian Civil War | |||||||||||
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Part of the Arab Spring, the Arab Winter, and the spillover of the Iraqi conflict | |||||||||||
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Hezbollah Iran Russia (2015–present) |
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Salvation Government (Tahrir al-Sham)[d][e]
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||||||
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Units involved | |||||||||||
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Strength | |||||||||||
Syrian Armed Forces: 180,000[66] |
Free Syrian Army: 20,000–32,000[73] (2013) Ahrar al-Sham: 18,000–20,000+[79][80] (March 2017) Tahrir al-Sham: 31,000[81] | 15,000–20,000 (per U.S., late 2016)[82] |
SDF: 60,000–75,000 (2017 est.)[83] | ||||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||||||
Syrian Arab Republic: 8,109 killed[89] (2,300–3,500+ IRGC-led)[94][95] |
132,824–173,824 killed[f][89][90] Turkey: 182 killed (2016–19 incursions)[96][97][98] |
28,532+ killed (per SOHR)[99] 20,711+ killed (per YPG & SAA)[100][101] |
SDF: CJTF–OIR: 11 killed[104] | ||||||||
112,623[89]–117,377[105] civilian deaths documented by opposition Total killed: 503,064-613,407 (per SOHR)[106] Estimated ≥7,600,000 internally displaced & ≥5,116,097 refugees (July 2015/2017)[107]a Since early 2013, the FSA has been decentralized with its name being arbitrarily used by various rebels. |
Background and Causes of the Civil War
changeMinority Rule
Syria has a diverse population regarding faith, ethnic and language minorities creates more tension in the country. The country is a Sunni Muslim majority, with Shia sects forming different branches, such as the Alawi.[119] Around 10% of the Syrian population is estimated to belong to the Alawi community. Even though they belong to the broader Shia, they have a secretive and exclusive community. Druze, Kurdish, Christian groups, and other minorities are also found in the country.[119] The fact that a minority group rules a majority also contributed to the growing tension.[120]
Political Instability
In 1943 the newly independent Syria did not have a central figure to lead the country. Provisional governments followed each other while contesting groups tried to rule the country. The Ba'ath Party was constructed around the Nahda a and started a political union with Egypt under the United Arab Republic. In the 1963 coup d'état, the Ba'ath Party targeted the UAR and appointed a new president.[119]
In 1970, Alawi general Hafez al-Assad took control of the country that year with a coup and became president. Hafez al-Assad's regime was supposedly secular, although coming from an Alawi family himself. The growing income gap in society and the stagnant economy fuelled opposition against the regime, particularly among the Sunni groups.[119] He ruled the country for the next 30 years until his passing. In 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad followed him as Syria's president. He promised political and economic reforms that never happened, which only increased the dissatisfaction of the Syrian nation. He strengthened his hold on the government through coercion and symbolism, which resulted in a massive personality cult around him.[121] The government held parades to glorify the leader, which required a need for obedience and affection to the ruler from society regardless of the true feelings and disagreement of the people.[119]
Environmental Issues
Between 2006 and 2010, Syria experienced the worst drought in its history. The drought intensified the already existing water and agricultural problems. It caused huge agricultural failures and livestock mortality. The government's policies contributed to the severity of the drought by exploiting the already limited land and water resources. Approximately 1.5 million people have migrated from rural farming areas to the peripheries of urban centres. Those areas were already burdened by the huge population growth caused by the Iraqi refugees arriving between 2003 and 2007. The drought contributed to the rising food prices and the decline of the country's GDP.[122] Adequate water supply is still a concern in the country.[123]
Socioeconomic issues
In the 1990s and 2000s, Syria's economy was in crisis because, among other economic failures, oil revenue and support from other Arab countries shrunk over the years. As a result, the working classes were impoverished throughout the years, and inequality rates increased.[124] Unemployment rates were high, especially among the youth.[125] The drought took away the source of income for many agrarian Syrians. When villagers relocated to the big cities, they struggled to find employment, which fueled growing resentment.[126][127] The nation struggled with high inequality and a corrupt government since only the privileged families who were tied to the government profited from privatization.[120] 1.5 million Syrians became internally displaced by drought on top of the 1.5 million Iraqi refugees. By 2010 20% of Syria's population was constituted by IDPs. The country experienced a 50% population increase from 2002 to 2010, which further increased the strain on its resources.[120] This led to illegal settlements, overcrowding, and increase in crime. The government neglected these problems, which grew the people's frustration.[122] Most importantly, Syrian citizens were fed up with the political oppression by Assad's regime.[114][128]
Arab Spring
The Syrian uprising that followed was part of the Arab spring. In other Arab countries before 2011, discontent was also rising about the current political and economic environment. In December 2010, a Tunisian man named Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire after being repeatedly mistreated by government officials. This led to considerable civil unrest in the country and eventually to mass demonstrations. The Tunisian president, Ben Ali, eventually resigned and fled. Surrounding Arab countries followed and in many countries, the people started demonstrating, demanding political change. It did not take long for the Syrian people to follow these examples.[129]
Beginning
changeThe Syrian civil war started on 15 March 2011 with demonstrations in Daraa, demanding the Ba'ath government to resign and stop Assad's authoritarian rule.[115][130] These demonstrations resulted from rising discontent among Syrian citizens regarding what Syria had become under the regime of President Assad.[114] In March 2011, children between 10 and 15 wrote antiregime graffiti on a wall saying, "It's your turn, Doctor".[131] The regime quickly arrested these children and tortured them in prison. Consequently, demonstrations started to erupt in Daraa, demanding the immediate release of these children. The regime tortured to death one of the 13-year-old boys they captured. His name was Hamza al-Khatib, and he became one of the early symbols of the brutal oppression the nation is fighting against.[131] The demonstrations in Daraa escalated after the Syrian military started using water cannons, tear gas, and live bullets against the protesters.[132] The Syrian regime responded with increasingly more violence.[133]
Bashar Al-Asad spoke in front of the Parliament, which was broadcasted on television after the first demonstrations and claimed that the protesters were trying to destroy Syria and "enforce an Israeli agenda." [119] Consequently, demonstrations spread across the country, reaching Aleppo, the second-largest city in Syria, resulting in the killing and detention of hundreds of protestors.[134][135] This resulted in the beginning of an armed insurgency, starting with forming of the Free Syrian Army in July 2011, consisting of defected army soldiers and civilian volunteers.[136] Battles took place in many towns and cities across the country.[137] The United States imposed economic sanctions on Syria two months after the demonstrations started.[119] As the military opposition became stronger and more organized, the United Nations declared the Syrian uprising a civil war in December 2011.[138]
Actors
changeSyrian Actors
changeFirstly, the most important actor in the Syrian civil war is the Syrian Armed Forces, under the control of the Syrian government and Bashar al-Assad. They are fighting in support of Assad's regime and against the armed opposition forces. Both the United Nations Human Rights Council and the Syrian Network for Human Rights have concluded that the Syrian Armed Forces are guilty of the most and worst human rights abuses.[139] Following huge amounts of defections, the Syrian Armed Forces have since late 2015 depended largely on hired militias and volunteers from outside of Syria.[140]
Syrian Factions
changeSecondly, the opposition forces consist of a big number of factions, with the Free Syrian Army as an important coalition of several of these militias. The Free Syrian Army was founded by defecting Syrian Army officers with the goal to protect civilians and to destroy the Syrian government.[136] It claimed to be "the military wing of the Syrian opposition".[141] Between 2011 and 2015, the Free Syrian Army lost most of its influence because of a lack of funding, fighting and rival Islamist groups.[142] After an intervention by the Turkish military in 2016, most of the Free Syrian Army became the Syrian National Army, also known as the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army.[143] The Syrian National Army became a coalition of opposition forces, coordinated and funded by Turkey.[144] The goals of the Syrian National Army are to counter Syrian government forces, the Syrian Democratic Forces and Islamist extremist forces, including the Islamic State and Hay'at-Tahrir al-Sham.[145][146][147]
Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)
changeThirdly, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) is a military alliance governing the self-declared Autonomous Administration in North and East Syria.[148] The main goal is to establish a democratic and non-religious system in Syria. Therefore, they have mostly been fighting ISIL together with Western countries.[148] Furthermore, they are opposed to the Syrian National Army, as the Turkish forces consider the Kurdish leadership of the SDF a terrorist organization and actively fight them.[149][150]
Islamist Groups
changeFourthly, numerous Islamist groups have been active in the Syrian Civil War. For example, in late 2011 the Islamist group al-Nusra Front began to have a bigger role in the forces. However, the most influential and effective Islamist group has been the Islamic State (ISIL), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). They emerged in April of 2013 and as of 2014, they effectively were in control of 30% of Syria and 40% of Iraq.[151][152] In July of 2014 they changed their name to simply Islamic State. ISIL has been fought by the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army, the Syrian Democratic Forces, the Syrian government forces and a US-led coalition of Western states.[153] Consequently, by 2017 it had lost 95% of its territory and in 2018 it was declared officially defeated by the United States.[152][154] This seems not to be entirely true, as more recent news has shown that IS is making a comeback. In 2022, already several attacks claimed by the Islamic State have been documented.[155] ISIL has been widely known for its terroristic regime, including many human rights abuses, such as mass public executions and torture.[156] The group attracted many young Islamists from all over the world due to their anti-western and extremist Islamic attitude. Consequently, they have also done terrorist attacks in the West, which is why the West has been so focused on actively fighting IS.[116]
Territorial Control
changeBy July 2013, the Syrian government controlled approximately 30–40 percent of the country's territory and 60 percent of the Syrian population.[157] In the beginning of 2022, the Assad regime is back to controlling more than 63% of Syrian territory, while the opposition forces control about 11% and the Syrian Democratic forces around 26%.[158]
Foreign Involvement and Proxy Wars
changeCritics argue that Western intervention at the time had used too much of an optimistic approach. Most Western politicians thought President Assad and his regime would fall within a year. They completely underestimated the strength of his regime. This is why the West did not intervene early on in the conflict. Only when the Islamic State gained territory did the West become more actively engaged in the conflict because this threatened their national security. However, there was never a defined plan, only the wish to remove the president and his current regime at the time from power. Russia and China, on the other hand, were always more actively engaged in the conflict, supporting the Syrian regime.[116]
USA and Russia
changeCurrently, the war cannot simply be described as a domestic two-sided war but must be described as several overlapping proxy wars.[159][160][161] The first one of these is between the United States and Russia.[159][161] Since 2015, Russia has been backing the Syrian government.[161] The main reason for this is that stability in the region will make it easier for Russia to exert its influence.[159] Furthermore, it is a perfect opportunity to display Russia's military capabilities.[159] On the other hand, the United States and NATO are partly involved in the war to counter this Russian influence in the MENA region.[159]
Iran and Saudi Arabia
changeThe second proxy war is between Iran and Saudi Arabia. Iran has supported the Syrian government since the start of the conflict. The reasons for this are that Iran and Syria have long been allies, and the survival of the Syrian regime is essential for Iran's geopolitical interests.[162] Iran has supported the Syrian regime by providing military supplies, helping pro-Assad militias and sending Hezbollah troops.[162] Saudi Arabia, on the other hand, has since 2012 been funding and arming the rebels, together with Qatar.[163][164] The main reason for this is to counter Iranian power and achieve regional dominance.[159]
Turkey
changeMoreover, Turkey is an essential foreign actor in the war. Turkey aims to prevent the Syrian Democratic Forces from successfully creating an independent state. As the leadership of the SDF, the Peoples Defense Unit (YPG), is largely Kurdish, creating an independent state would set an example for Kurds in Turkey.[150][159] This would threaten Turkey's territorial integrity.[159] Furthermore, Turkey considers the YPG to be a terrorist organization.[165] Turkey has been a dominant force in Northern Syria throughout the war, providing the opposition with military aid, building governance institutions and funding infrastructure projects.[166]
Aid
changeSeveral cease-fire attempts were made during the civil war. The first one was by Kofi Annan, who worked as the representative of the United Arab League. He set out a peace plan, but even after he met with Bashar al-Assad, the fighting continued. The plan for a cease-fire was disregarded. At the time, the casualties already included 17,000 deaths. Eleven thousand nine hundred were civilians, 900 military defectors and 4,350 government soldiers. Shortly after the failure of the peace plan, Annan urged Iran to take a greater role in helping to stop the war.[167] The United Kingdom and France have also been significant actors in the conflict, as they have been providing aid to several moderate opposition forces.[168][169] Turkey and Iran also claimed to have recruited Pakistani mercenaries to fight for opposing sides, which could have also resulted in them fighting each other.[170][171][172]
Human Rights
changeSeveral institutions have documented many grave human rights violations throughout the conflict, including Human Rights Watch, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Syrian Network for Human Rights. International organizations accused both government and opposition forces of violating human rights.[173] According to the UN, the Syrian government carried out most of the abuses.[174][175][176][177][178]
Humanitarian Crisis
changeAccording to the United Nations, as of 2022, more than 12 million Syrians will be living in food insecurity, and more than 14.6 million Syrians will be in need of humanitarian assistance.[179] Millions of citizens are still short of electricity, food and drinking water. This is worsened by Russia's invasion of Ukraine in March of 2022, which hinders essential food imports.[160] Of the 14.6 million Syrians that are in need of humanitarian assistance, 1.48 million people are in catastrophic need, claims the U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.[180] Above all that, the economic toll of the war has resulted in 90% of Syrians living under the poverty line as of 2022.[180] The United Nations say the humanitarian crisis is worsening in 2022, and a peace agreement is far from reaching.[181] However, at the Brussels Conference in 2022, international donors have agreed to provide Syria with 6.7 billion USD for support and reconstruction.[182]
War Crimes
changeFurthermore, the opposition and the government forces are guilty of committing acts that amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity.[180] The Syrian-Russian alliance is guilty of most human rights violations, primarily through indiscriminate attacks on civilian infrastructure.[180] However, the US-led coalition is also guilty of using indiscriminate weapons in much smaller numbers.[139] Also, Syrian government forces and militias continue to arbitrarily detain, torture, execute and make Syrian civilians disappear.[180] Since the beginning of the war, almost 15 000 Syrians have died of torture, and 100 000 Syrians are still missing.[183]
Also, in 2013 the Syrian regime allegedly used chemical weapons, a nerve agent called sarin. This drew attention from the international community.[184] The US and Russia made Syria sign the Chemical Weapons Convention, which forbids the use of chemical weapons. The government reportedly surrendered their chemical weapons in 2014.[185] In 2017, the town of Khan Shaykhun was hit by another sarin attack, which killed 90 people, and 30 of them were children.[186]
Death Toll
changeAccording to the latest data from the Syrian Network for Human Rights (2022), well over 225,000 civilians have been killed since the start of the conflict, among which around 30,000 are children.[183] For around 200 000 of these civilian deaths are by the Syrian military.[139] According to the UN Human Rights Council, the total death toll of the Syrian civil war is around 350 000, although this is almost certainly an undercount of the actual death toll.[187] The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has claimed to have documented a much higher death toll, arguing that 610 000 people died since the start of the conflict, of which they have already identified and documented 500 000.[117]
Refugee Crisis
changeAccording to the UN Refugee Agency, 6.6 million Syrians have fled the country since 2011, and 6.7 million people are internally displaced.[188] Most went to neighbouring countries, such as Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey and Iraq, which were the most affected;[189] however, millions of Syrians also seeked refuge in Europe. Two significant migration flows were through Turkey and the Balkans, until the EU border in Hungary, and from the coast of Africa into southern Europe. Many people went through dangerous boat trips in the Mediterranean, leading to many drownings. This became an important point of discussion for the European Union, with some countries more and others less welcoming to receiving these refugees.[190]
Related pages
changeReferences
change- ↑ 1.0 1.1 References:
- Damascus allows Iraq to hit ISIL targets in Syria: State media, Al Jazeera, Dec 30, 2018.
- Assad gives Iraq green light to launch attacks in Syria without approval Archived 2021-04-24 at the Wayback Machine, Al-Masdar News, Dec 30, 2018.
- Assad Authorizes Iraq to Attack ISIS in Syria , Haaretz, Dec 30, 2018.
- Iraqi jets strike ISIS target in Syria a day after Damascus carte blanche, The National, Dec 31, 2018.
- Iraqi Air Force bombs ISIS command meeting in Syria Archived 2021-06-02 at the Wayback Machine, Al-Masdar News, Jan 3, 2019.
- Iraq’s Air Force will begin bombing ISIS in Syria, NewsRep, Jan 1, 2019.
- ↑ "Iraq conducts first airstrikes against ISIS in Syria". CNN. February 24, 2017.
- ↑ "Lukashenka supplies weapons to Assad". Charter 97.
- ↑ Беларусь и Сирия: от дипломатии до военного сотрудничества
- ↑ Беларусь выходит в лидеры на рынке средств радиоэлектронной борьбы — Naviny.by, 4 мая 2018
- ↑ "Trump ends CIA arms support for anti-Assad Syria rebels: U.S. officials". Reuters. 19 July 2017.
- ↑ "Victory for Assad looks increasingly likely as world loses interest in Syria". The Guardian. 31 August 2017.
Returning from a summit in the Saudi capital last week, opposition leaders say they were told directly by the foreign minister, Adel al-Jubeir, that Riyadh was disengaging.
- ↑ "Britain withdraws last of troops training Syrian rebels as world powers distance themselves from opposition". Daily Telegraph. 2 September 2017.
- ↑ "Hollande confirms French delivery of arms to Syrian rebels". AFP. 21 August 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
- ↑ Watson, Ivan; Tuysuz, Gul (29 October 2014). "Meet America's newest allies: Syria's Kurdish minority". CNN. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ↑ A. Jaunger (30 July 2017). "US increases military support to Kurdish-led forces in Syria". ARA News. Retrieved 1 January 2018 – via Inside Syria Media Center.
- ↑ Jamie Dettmer (9 June 2016). "France Deploys Special Forces in Syria as IS Loses Ground". VOA. Retrieved 1 January 2018.
- ↑ "U.S.-backed fighters poised to cut key ISIS supply line". CBS News. 9 June 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Irish, John (13 November 2013). "Syrian Kurdish leader claims military gains against Islamists". Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 November 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
Muslim said the PYD had received aid, money and weapons from the Iraq-based Kurdistan Democratic Party and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan...
- ↑ Ranj Alaaldin (16 December 2014). "A Dangerous Rivalry for the Kurds". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
Once again, the P.U.K. saw a chance to seize the initiative, by suggesting that it, rather than the Kurdistan regional government or the K.D.P., was providing weapons and supplies to the Syrian Kurdish fighters, who belong to a party that has historically been at odds with the K.D.P.
- ↑ Jack Murphy (23 March 2017). "Did Kurdistan's Counter-Terrorist Group assault the Tabqa Dam in Syria?". SOFREP. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
- ↑ Alexander Whitcomb (30 October 2014). "Peshmerga advance team in Kobane". Rudaw Media Network. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
- ↑ "France Says Its Airstrikes Hit an ISIS Camp in Syria". The New York Times. 28 September 2015.
- ↑ "COALITION: SPECIAL OPS FORCES TRAIN, EQUIP TWO OPPOSITION GROUPS IN SOUTHERN SYRIA". NRT News. 22 May 2017. Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
- ↑ "The UAE has it in for the Muslim Brotherhood". Al-Araby Al-Jadeed. 22 February 2017.
Along with their American counterparts, Emirati special forces are said to be training elements of the opposition. They constitute a kind of Arab guarantee among the Syrian Democratic Forces – an umbrella group dominated by the Kurds of the PYD, on whom the US are relying to fight IS on the ground.
- ↑ "Saudi Arabia, UAE send troops to support Kurds in Syria". Middle East Monitor. 22 November 2018.
- ↑ "Australia to end air strikes in Iraq and Syria, bring Super Hornets home". Reuters. 21 December 2017.
- ↑ Barton, Rosemary (26 November 2015). "Justin Trudeau to pull fighter jets, keep other military planes in ISIS fight". CBC News. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
- ↑ Syria-Irak-Yemen-Libya maps
- ↑ "Leading Syrian regime figures killed in Damascus bomb attack". The Guardian. July 2012.
- ↑ "Syria defence minister killed in Damascus bomb". The Daily Telegraph. 18 July 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2012.
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- ↑ (Head of National Defence Forces)"Assad cousin killed in Syria's Latakia". Al Jazeera. 8 October 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
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- ↑ "Iranian General Is Killed in Syria". The Wall Street Journal. 13 February 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ "Obituary: Hezbollah military commander Mustafa Badreddine". BBC. 14 May 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ "Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for Hezbollah fighters' death". Middle East Monitor. 19 January 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ "Israeli strike on Syrian Golan Heights 'kills son of top military commander and five other fighters from Lebanese Shiite militant group'". Daily Mail. 19 January 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ "Analysis: Shiite Afghan casualties of the war in Syria". FDD's Long War Journal. 12 March 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ "Update 1-Moscow blames 'two-faced U.S. policy' for Russian general's Syria death -RIA". Reuter. 25 September 2017.
- ↑ "Body of senior Russian officer killed in Syria delivered to Moscow". TASS. 29 April 2016. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
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- ↑ sitesi, milliyet.com.tr Türkiye'nin lider haber. "Son dakika: Afrin harekatını Korgeneral İsmail Metin Temel yönetecek!". Milliyet. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
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- ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Leading Syrian rebel groups form new Islamic Front". BBC. 22 November 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
- ↑ "Suicide bombing kills head of Syrian rebel group". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 2021-05-10. Retrieved 2019-06-03.
- ↑ "Al Qaeda's chief representative in Syria killed in suicide attack". FDD's Long War Journal. 23 February 2014.
- ↑ "Russian raids kill prominent Syrian rebel commander". Al Jazeera. 25 December 2015.
- ↑ Nic Robertson & Paul Cruickshank (5 March 2015). "Source: Syrian warplanes kill leaders of al-Nusra". CNN.
- ↑ "Senior Nusra Front commander killed in Syria air strike". Al Jazeera. 6 March 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
- ↑ "Nusra Front spokesman killed by air strike in Syria". Al Jazeera. 4 April 2016.
- ↑ "Syria's Qaeda spokesman, 20 jihadists dead in strikes: monitor". AFP. 3 April 2016 – via Yahoo!.
- ↑ "Air strike kills top commander of former Nusra group in Syria". Reuters. 9 September 2016.
- ↑ "Leader of Qaeda Cell in Syria, Muhsin al-Fadhli, Is Killed in Airstrike, U.S. Says". The New York Times. 2 July 2015.
- ↑ "Isis leader incapacitated with suspected spinal injuries after air strike". The Guardian. 1 May 2015.
- ↑ "ISIS confirms death of senior leader in Syria". FDD's Long War Journal. February 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
- ↑ Alessandria Masi (11 November 2014). "If ISIS Leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi Is Killed, Who Is Caliph Of The Islamic State Group?". International Business Times. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
- ↑ Schmidt, Michael S.; Mazzetti, Mark (25 March 2016). "A Top ISIS Leader Is Killed in an Airstrike, the Pentagon Says". The New York Times.
- ↑ Starr, Barbara (14 March 2016). "U.S. assesses ISIS operative Omar al-Shishani is dead". CNN.
- ↑ Ryan, Missy (3 July 2015). "U.S. drone strike kills a senior Islamic State militant in Syria". The Washington Post. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ Starr, Barbara; Conlon, Kevin (19 May 2015). "U.S. names ISIS commander killed in raid". CNN. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ Starr, Barbara; Acosta, Jim (22 August 2015). "U.S.: ISIS No.2 killed in US drone strike in Iraq". CNN.
- ↑ Sherlock, Ruth (9 July 2014). "Inside the leadership of Islamic State: how the new 'caliphate' is run". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
- ↑ "Isis: US-trained Tajik special forces chief Gulmurod Khalimov becomes Isis war minister". International Business Times. 6 September 2016 – via Yahoo News.
- ↑ "Top ISIL leaders killed in southern Syria". The National. 9 June 2017.
- ↑ Sands, Phil; Maayeh, Suha web (17 November 2015), "Death of 'ISIL commander' in southern Syria a blow to the group", The National
- ↑ "The Syrian Democratic Council concludes its work by issuing the final communiqué". Hawar News Agency. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ↑ "New Operation Inherent Resolve commander continues fight against ISIL". Army Worldwide News. 22 August 2016.
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- ↑ Hisham Arafat (31 August 2017). "Senior SDF commander lost his life in Raqqa fighting IS". Kurdistan 24.
- ↑ "Syria military strength". Global Fire Power. 17 October 2015.
- ↑ "Syria's diminished security forces". Agence France-Presse. 28 August 2013. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
- ↑ ISIS’ Iraq offensive could trigger Hezbollah to fill gap left in Syria Archived 2016-06-04 at the Wayback Machine The Daily Star, 16 June 2014
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 "Iran 'Foreign Legion' Leads Battle in Syria's North". The Wall Street Journal. 17 February 2016.
- ↑ "Russia's Syria force has reportedly grown to 4,000 people". Business Insider.
- ↑ Grove, Thomas (18 December 2015). "Up to Nine Russian Contractors Die in Syria, Experts Say". Wall Street Journal.
- ↑ "State-of-the-art technology is giving Assad's army the edge in Syria". 26 February 2016.
- ↑ "Here's The Extremist-To-Moderate Spectrum Of The 100,000 Syrian Rebels". Business Insider.
- ↑ "Front to Back". Foreign Policy.
- ↑ Cockburn, Patrick (11 December 2013). "West suspends aid for Islamist rebels in Syria, underlining their disillusionment with those forces opposed to President Bashar al-Assad". The Independent.
- ↑ Who are these 70,000 Syrian fighters David Cameron is relying on?. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
- ↑ Şafak, Yeni (5 January 2017). "8 bin asker emir bekliyor". Yeni Şafak.
- ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-01-16. Retrieved 2019-06-03.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ↑ "Is Syria's Idlib being groomed as Islamist killing ground?". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 2018-11-17. Retrieved 2019-06-03.
- ↑ "Al Qaeda Is Starting to Swallow the Syrian Opposition". Foreign Policy. 15 March 2017.
- ↑ Rida, Nazeer (30 January 2017). "Syria: Surfacing of 'Hai'at Tahrir al-Sham' Threatens Truce". Asharq Al-Awsat.
- ↑ "Isis ranks dwindle to 15,000 amid 'retreat on all fronts', claims Pentagon". The Guardian. 11 August 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
- ↑ Rashid (2018), p. 7.
- ↑ Rashid (2018), p. 16.
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 Rashid (2018), p. 53.
- ↑ "US coalition spokesman: Arabs are leading Manbij campaign, not Kurds". ARA News. 4 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
- ↑ "US-backed fighters close in on IS Syria bastion". 6 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
- ↑ Rodi Said (25 August 2017). "U.S.-backed forces to attack Syria's Deir al-Zor soon: SDF official". Reuters.
- ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 89.3 89.4 89.5 89.6 89.7 "More than 570 thousand people were killed on the Syrian territory within 8 years of revolution demanding freedom, democracy, justice, and equality". 15 March 2019.
- ↑ 90.0 90.1 90.2 "Tantalizing promises of Bashar al- Assad kill more than 11000 fighters of his forces during 5 months". SOHR. 17 December 2014. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
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- ↑ Syria Daily: Russia Acknowledges Deaths of 3 Troops
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Turkish soldier killed in northern Latakia after unknown group opens fire near border crossing - ↑ 8,000 killed in fighting (29 June 2014–28 June 2015),IS executes over 3,000 in Syria in year-long 'caliphate 417 killed in Palmyra offensive (March 2016), https://townhall.com/news/politics-elections/2016/03/28/syrian-forces-pursue-campaign-against-islamic-state-after-retaking-palmyra-n2139741 Archived 2018-08-07 at the Wayback Machine[dead link] 47 killed in fighting with rebels (27–29 May 2016), Thousands flee ISIS offensive in northern Syria 1,026 killed in Manbij offensive,The third US citizen fighter is killed in Manbij area and casualty number rises to about 1800 civilians and fighters 283 killed in Palmyra offensive (2017), Palmyra city restore operation kills more than 400 persons in about 50 days, leaves gas and oilfields in the grip of the “Islamic State” organization 1,371 killed in Battle of Raqqa (2017),[1] 1,394 killed in Central Syria campaign (2017),[2][3][4][5][6][7] 538 executed (29 June 2014–23 September 2017),[8] 233 killed Southern Damascus offensive (April–May 2018),[9] 31 killed As-Suwayda offensive (June 2018) [10] قتال متواصل بعنف مع تنظيم “الدولة الإسلامية” على بعد نحو 50 كيلومتراً من منطقة تواجد التحالف الدولي في التنف [11] 310 killed 2018 Southern Syria offensive,[12] 63 killed 2018 As-Suwayda attacks [13] 428 killed As-Suwayda offensive (August–November 2018), [14] 9,158 killed in U.S. air-strikes (22 September 2014– March 2019),[15] 5,233 killed in Russian air-strikes (30 September 2015– March 2019),[16] total of 28,532 reported killed
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