Wikipedia

List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries

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Pakistan has a rich history of innovation and scientific discoveries, from ancient to modern times.[3] The region, home to ancient civilizations like Mehrgarh (c. 7000–c. 2600 BCE), the Indus Valley (c. 3300–c. 1300 BCE), Gandhara (c. 1200 BCE–c. 1001 CE), and Vedic societies (c. 1500–c. 500 BCE), has made significant contributions to science, technology, and culture.[4][5][6]

Indus Valley etched carnelian beads
(3rd millennium BCE)
Decorated Carnelian Beads, Harappa Culture.[1]
Indus valley civilization etched carnelian bead, Mohenjo-daro.[2]
Making etched carnelian beads in modern times in Sehwan (Pakistan): one mixes the alkali formula in a mortar, while the other prepares a brasero (Mackay, 1933).[2]

In Neolithic Pakistan, evidence of early farming and herding dates back to 7000 BCE, with Mehrgarh being the earliest known site in South Asia showing such evidence.[7] The Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization developed advanced agricultural techniques, wheeled transportation, sophisticated metallurgical methods, and a standardized system of weights and measures. They also excelled in urban planning, with cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa showcasing advanced civil engineering skills and social organization. Harappans invented standardized weights and measures, developed complex drainage systems, and used grid planning in their cities.[8][9]

During the Iron Age, Gandhara saw advancements in metallurgy and craftsmanship. The development of sculptural techniques in stone and stucco led to the creation of intricate Buddhist art and architecture.[10][11] The use of coinage in this era marked significant progress in economic systems and trade practices.[12] In medieval Pakistan, innovations flourished under various dynasties. The Ghaznavid dynasty (977–1186) and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) introduced advanced irrigation systems like the Persian wheel, significantly improving agricultural productivity.[13] The Mughal era (1526–1857) marked a pinnacle of architectural and artistic innovation with the use of double domes, garden design and intricate inlay work in iconic structures such as the Lahore Fort and the Badshahi Mosque.[14][15] They also advanced hydraulic engineering with elaborate water management systems, enhancing irrigation and urban water supply and advancements in military technology (e.g., use of gunpowder).[16] The Sikh Empire (1799–1849) contributed to military technology with modernized weaponry and artillery and promoted infrastructural projects like roads and forts.[17][18]

In modern times, Pakistani scientists and engineers have made significant contributions across various fields. Naveed Zaidi developed the world's first workable plastic magnet in 2004.[19] Dr. Abdus Salam's work on the electroweak interaction, which contributed to the Standard Model of particle physics, earned him a Nobel Prize.[20] Other notable achievements include Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood's SBM probe, Ayub K. Ommaya's reservoir for drug delivery, and Faisal Kashif's non-invasive intracranial pressure monitoring technology.[21] Contributions in computing include the Farooq Alvi Brothers' (c)Brain virus, worlds first computer virus,[22] and Naweed Syed's neurochip. In music, Raza Kazim designed the Sagar veena, and in economics, Mahbub ul Haq created the Human Development Index (HDI).[23]

The following list encompasses inventions and discoveries made in the geographic region of Ancient Pakistan (i.e. The Greater Indus region) from prehistoric times to the modern era. It also includes contributions from individuals of Pakistani descent, regardless of where they were made. The list may also encompass contributions of uncertain place of origin that were made during periods when Pakistan was part of larger or "universal" empires.[note 1]

Prehistoric and Ancient Pakistan

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An image of a wooden bow drill designed for fire starting. These drills with green jasper bits were used in Mehrgarh between the 4th and 5th millennium BC to drill holes into Lapis lazuli and carnelian.
See also: Ancient Pakistan

Agriculture

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  • Indigo: Indigo derives its name from its origin in the Indus Valley, where it was first discovered around 5,000 years ago (circa 3000 BCE) in ancient Pakistan. The term "nīlā," meaning dark blue, refers to the color of the dye. By the 7th century BCE, people started using indigo for producing blue dye.[25]
  • Jute Cultivation: Jute has been cultivated in Pakistan since ancient times. It was being used for making textiles in the Indus valley Civilization since the 3rd millennium BC.[26]
  • Cotton Industry: The earliest evidence of the use of cotton in the Old World, dated to 5500 BC and preserved in copper beads, has been found at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, at the foot of the Bolan Pass in ancient Pakistan. Fragments of cotton textiles have been found at Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization, and cotton may have been an important export from it. The Cotton industry in Ancient Pakistan was well developed and continues to be a major crop uptil today.[27]

Construction, Civil Engineering, and Architecture

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Bullock cart with driver, 2000 B.C. from Harappa.
  • Wheel Transport: The invention and use of the wheel for transportation is one of the most significant technological advancements in human history. The earliest evidence of the wheel dates back to around 3500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization of ancient Pakistan. Archaeological findings suggest that the wheel was initially used for pottery, with the first known wheel used for transportation emerging later. Wheeled vehicles, such as carts and chariots, were essential for trade and movement, influencing the development of infrastructure and urban planning.[28] The adoption of wheeled vehicles contributed to the expansion of trade networks and the growth of settlements in the Indus Valley and beyond.[29]
  • Flush toilet: Flush Toilet using water are found in several houses of the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in ancient Pakistan from the 3rd millennium BC.[30] Lavatories were built into the outer walls of houses. Toilets were made from bricks with wooden seats on top that had vertical chutes, through which waste fell into street drains or cesspits.[31]
  • Public Baths: The earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of the Indus Valley Civilisation. According to John Keay, the "Great Bath" of Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.[32]
  • Grid Plan: The site of Rehman Dheri in Pakistan contains the earliest evidence of a grid-planned city in south Asia dated c. 3300 BCE.[33][34] By 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and other major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north–south and east–west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes.[35]
  • Drainage System: The Indus Valley Civilisation had advanced sewerage and drainage systems. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers, which lined the major streets.[36]
  • Dams: In Neolithic Mehrgarh (7000-3200 BCE) people had developed a water storage system to trap rain and torrential waters in the semi-arid region of Kuch between the Indus river and Balochistan mountains where the seasonal Bolan river flows. Stone walls were built along the slope of torrential river beds to serve as reservoir dams, restrict flow of water and for diverting water into canals for irrigation.[37][38][39]
  • Public Litter bins: Archaeologists have found several brick containers that were strategically located along the street junctions of Mohenjo-Daro specifically for garbage disposal.[40][41]
  • First Statue of Buddha: The first statues of Buddha originated from the Gandhara region in ancient Pakistan. These early representations of Buddha, created in the 1st-2nd century CE, were influenced by Greek artistic styles due to the region's Hellenistic heritage. The Gandharan Buddha statues are renowned for their realistic and detailed portrayal of Buddha, combining classical Greek aesthetics with Buddhist iconography. The Seated Buddha from Gandhara, Pakistan is the oldest surviving statue of Buddha.[42][43]

Tools and Mechanisms

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  • Bow Drill: Bow drills were used in Mehrgarh between the 4th and 5th millennium BC.[44] This bow drill—used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and carnelian—was made of green jasper.[44] Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Iran one millennium later of Mehrgarh.[44]
  • Saw, modern: True saws with modern teeth were a Harappan invention.[45]
  • Touchstone: The touchstone was used during the Harappan period of the Indus Valley civilization ca. 2600–1900 BC for testing the purity of soft metals.[46]

Textile and material production

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  • Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[47] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.[47] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[48]
  • Stoneware: Earliest stonewares, predecessors of porcelain have been recorded at the Indus Valley Civilisation sites of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, they were used for making stoneware bangles.[49][50][51]
     
    A boy's frock produced c. 1855 in Kashmir; cashmere wool twill with silk embroidery and silk tassels.
  • Pashmina / Cashmere wool: Cashmere wool is believed to originate from the region of Kashmir.[52] It has been manufactured in Pakistan for thousands of years. Samples of wool fibres have also been discovered from corroded copper artifacts from Harappa dating back to the Indus Valley Civilisation are extremely fine and resemble Pashmina and Shatoosh.[53] The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina in Urdu and Kashmiri for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir.[52] References to woolen shawls appear in texts surviving from between the 3rd century BC and the 11th century AD. However, a popular notion in Kashmir is that it was the 15th-century ruler of Kashmir, Zain-ul-Abidin, who founded the local wool industry by bringing weavers from Turkestan. Another local tradition sees the founder of all Kashmiri crafts, the famous 14th century saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani who, tradition goes, brought 700 craftsmen from Persia to Kashmir.[54] He combed some Kashmiri goat wool and made a pair of socks with his own hands. Afterwards he gifted those socks to the king of Kashmir, Sultan Qutubdin (1374-89 AD).[55] Sultan was amazed by their durability and fineness and started its weaving in Kashmir.[56]
  • Spinning wheel / Charkha: The origin of the spinning wheel, locally known as Charkha in Pakistan, is disputed. Many historians believe it originated in the Indus Valley Civilization of Pakistan. J.M. Kenoyer, an expert on the Indus Valley Civilization, speculates that the uniformity of the thread and tight weave observed from a clay impression indicate the use of a spinning wheel by the civilization rather than drop spindles. However, according to Pakistani archaeologist Mukhtar Ahmed, the spinning whorls used since prehistoric times by the Indus Valley people were capable of producing a tight weave.[57][58]
  • Tanning (leather): Ancient civilizations used leather for waterskins, bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour, quivers, scabbards, boots, and sandals. Tannery or Hide tanning has its origins in Ancient Pakistan. It was being carried out by the inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000 and 3300 BCE.[59]

Arts and Craftsmanship

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Left image: The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro; 2300-1750 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm (41⁄4 in.); Oldest known Bronze Statue.
Right image: Wheel amulet from Mehrgarh; the oldest known example of lost-wax casting technique.
  • Etched Carnelian beads: A type of ancient decorative beads made from carnelian with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the Harappans during the 3rd millennium BCE and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.[60][61][62]
  • Bronze sculpture: The sculpture of Dancing Girl from the ancient city of Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Civilization dating back to 2500 BCE is said to be the first bronze statue.[63][64]
  • Lost wax casting: A detailed, full-field photoluminescence study of a 6,000 year old copper "wheel" amulet from Mehrgarh in Balochistan has opened the door to many new facts about this period of history. This study by Ipanema, the European center for the study of ancient materials, believes that this is the oldest known example of the "lost wax" casting technique, one of the most important innovations in the history of metallurgy.[65][66]

Games and Leisure

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  • Cockfighting: Cockfighting originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation of ancient Pakistan in 2000 BCE and introduced to other parts of the world.[67] It was a popular pastime and one of the early uses of fighting cocks. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended. The sport was prevalent in ancient times across the subcontinent, China, the Persian Empire, and other Eastern countries, and was introduced into Greece during the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BCE). It subsequently spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. Although initially regarded with disdain by the Romans as a 'Greek diversion,' they eventually embraced it so fervently that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century CE) noted that enthusiasts would often spend their entire fortunes betting on the sport."[68] The game is still extremely popular in the rural areas of Punjab, Pakistan and there are over 50 species of fighting cocks in the country.[69][70]
    Indus Valley Games
     
    Terracotta Dice from the city of Mohenjo-Daro.
     
     
    Terracotta Toy from Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.
  • Seven Stones: An traditional game, also called Pitthu or Pithu Gol Garam, is played in rural areas of Pakistan. It is believed to have its origins in the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation.[71]
  • Kabaddi: Kabaddi is an traditional sport played in Pakistan since the ancient times. Origins of it are not clear. The sport is said to have existed in the Indo-Pak subcontinent since prehistoric times. Ronojoy Sen speculates in his book Nation At Play that kabaddi originated during the Vedic period (between 1500 BC and 500 BC).[72]
  • Malakhro: An ancient form of wrestling that originated in Sindh, Pakistan. It dates back 5000 years.[73] The match begins with both wrestlers tying a twisted cloth around the opponent's waist. Each one then holds onto the opponent's waist cloth and tries to throw him to the ground. Malakhra is one of the favorite sports among males in Sindh, Pakistan. Malakhara matches are generally held on holidays and Fridays and are a feature of all fairs and festivals. Rich feudal lords and influential persons maintain famous Malhoo (wrestlers) and organize matches for them. In the Pakistani region of Sindh, it is the provincial sport.[74][75]

Science and Medicine

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  • Distillation: A terracota distillation apparatus in the Indus Valley in West Pakistan dates from around 3000 BCE.[76]
  • Dentistry: The evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BCE.[77] The Neolithic site Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.[78]

Metrology

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Harappan Weights and Balance
 
Standard Weights and Balance used by the Harappans.
 
Closer view of the Balance and weights.
  • Standardisation: The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation of ancient Pakistan in the 5th millennium BCE characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as[79] well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.[79] The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[80]

A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Chanhu-daro, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5 m in thickness. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the binary and decimal systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of chert.[81][82]

Linguistics and Literature

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  • Formal grammar / Formal systems: In his treatise Astadhyayi, Panini, a logician and grammarian from Salatura (Lahor), Pakistan, gives formal production rules and definitions to describe the formal grammar of Sanskrit.[84] In formal language theory, a grammar (when the context is not given, often called a formal grammar for clarity) is a set of production rules for strings in a formal language. The rules describe how to form strings from the language's alphabet that are valid according to the language's syntax. A grammar does not describe the meaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. The Backus-Naur form, used to describe the syntax of programming languages, applies similar concepts.[85]

Miscellaneous

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  • Needle's eye: The eye of the needle was another Harappan contribution.[45]
  • Sesame oil: Sesame seeds were one of the first crops processed for oil as well as one of the earliest condiments. Sesame was cultivated during the Indus Valley Civilisation and was the main oil crop. It was probably exported to Mesopotamia from ancient Pakistan around 2500 BC.[86][87][88]

Medieval and Early Modern Pakistan

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9th century

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Modern Pakistan (1947–present)

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Agriculture

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  • IED-proof fertiliser: A notable Pakistani innovation in the realm of agriculture and safety is the invention of IED-proof fertilizer by the Pakistani firm , Fatima Group. This new formula, developed by Pakistan's major fertilizer manufacturer, prevents the conversion of fertilizers into bomb-making materials. Traditionally, fertilizers containing ammonium nitrate can easily be repurposed for explosives. Fatima Group’s non-lethal alternative represents a significant advancement in agricultural safety and counter-terrorism.[91] Lt-Gen Michael Barbero, head of the Pentagon’s Joint Improved Explosive Device Defeat Organisation, hailed this invention as a "true scientific breakthrough."[92] The initiative has been praised for enhancing safety protocols and preventing misuse of agricultural products for malicious purposes.[92]

Chemistry

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  • Plastic Magnet: World's first workable plastic magnet at room temperature was developed by the Pakistani-American organic chemist and polymer scientist Naveed Zaidi in 2004.[93][94][95]

Physics

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Standard model of Electroweak Interaction.

Nuclear energy

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  • SBM probe: Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood, a Pakistani nuclear engineer developed a device to detect heavy water leaks in nuclear steam cylinders while working at Knapp nuclear power reactor near Karachi in 1972.[103] The device is patent in his name under his initials SBM probe and is widely used in nuclear power plants to date.[104]

Medicine

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Schematic representation of an implanted Ommaya reservoir.

Computing

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The boot sector of an infected floppy.
  • (c)Brain: A boot sector computer virus dubbed (c)Brain, also known as Pakistani Brain, is the first computer virus in history. It was created in 1986 by the Farooq Alvi Brothers in Lahore, Pakistan, reportedly to deter unauthorized copying of the software they had written.[107][108]
  • Neurochip: A neurochip is an integrated circuit chip (such as a microprocessor) that is designed for interaction with neuronal cells. It is made of silicon that is doped in such a way that it contains EOSFETs (electrolyte-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors) that can sense the electrical activity of the neurons (action potentials) in the above-standing physiological electrolyte solution. The University of Calgary, Faculty of Medicine scientists led by Pakistani-Canadian scientist Naweed Syed developed this technology.[109]

Music

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  • Sagar Veena: The Sagar veena, a string instrument designed for use in Pakistani classical music, was invented and developed in Pakistan over the last 40 years at the Sanjannagar Institute in Lahore by Raza Kazim, where it is still being studied.[110][111]

Economics

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Notes

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  1. ↑ The term is applied to the three empires that almost encompassed the entire subcontinent spanning Indus and Gangetic. The concept of the universal state based on slavery, with its high-point in the Mauryan empire, had itself sown the seeds of the feudal order many centuries earlier. The two subsequent 'universal states' encompassing the entire subcontinent, would, in turn, be the high points, respectively, of feudalism (the Mughal Empire), and of imperial capitalism (the British Empire).[24]

References

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  1. ↑ Chanhudaro, Ernest J. Mackay, American Oriental Society, 1943
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Mackay, Ernest (1935). Indus civilization. pp. Plate K, Item Nb 5.
  3. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-05-29). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume I: The Stone Age. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4954-9047-7.
  4. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-18). Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History: Volume IV: Harappan Civilization - Theoretical and the Abstract. ISBN 978-1-4960-8208-4.
  5. ↑ "Gandhara | Buddhist Art, Greco-Buddhist, Taxila | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-07-17. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  6. ↑ Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982-07-29). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28550-6.
  7. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  8. ↑ Rahmaan, Anis Ur (2017-10-16). Evolution of Town Planning in Pakistan: With a Specific Reference to Punjab Province. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1-5245-8482-5.
  9. ↑ Wright, Rita P. (2009-10-26). The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57219-4.
  10. ↑ Gandhāran Art in Pakistan. Pantheon Books. 1957.
  11. ↑ "The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Art of Gandhara". Asia Society. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  12. ↑ Samad, Rafi U. (2011). The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87586-859-2.
  13. ↑ Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990]. Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History (1st MIT Press paperback ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. pp. 23–24.
  14. ↑ Nath, Ram (1989). Colour Decoration in Mughal Architecture: India and Pakistan. Historical Research Documentation Programme. ISBN 978-81-85105-11-6.
  15. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  16. ↑ Streusand, Douglas E. (2019-06-13). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-09592-5.
  17. ↑ Cheema, Jashandeep Singh Kang and Col Daljeet Singh (2024-01-01). Military History Of The Sikhs. Abhishek Publications. ISBN 978-93-5652-461-3.
  18. ↑ Bansal, Bobby Singh (2015-12-01). Remnants of the Sikh Empire: Historical Sikh Monuments in India & Pakistan. Hay House, Inc. ISBN 978-93-84544-93-5.
  19. ↑ "Magnetic Plastic". www.coursehero.com. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  20. ↑ "Abdus Salam | Nobel Prize, theoretical physicist, quantum theory | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  21. ↑ Dawn.com (2011-10-21). "New neurological test by a Pakistani". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  22. ↑ Hasan, Saad. "The making of the first computer virus — the Pakistani Brain". TRT World. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  23. ↑ Stanton, Elizabeth A. (2007-01-01). "The Human Development Index: A History". Political Economy Research Institute. doi:10.7275/1282621. hdl:20.500.14394/40243 – via University of Massachusetts Amherst.
  24. ↑ McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
  25. ↑ Prasad, Rajendra (2018-08-01). "Indigo---the Crop that Created History and then Itself Became History" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 53 (3). doi:10.16943/ijhs/2018/v53i3/49461. ISSN 0019-5235. Indigo got its name because of its origin in the Indus Valley, discovered some 5,000 years ago (or circa 3000 BCE), where it was called nīlā, meaning dark blue and by the 7th Century BCE, people started using the plant for producing the blue dye (Kriger and Connah, 2006).
  26. ↑ Wright, Rita P.; Lentz, David L.; Beaubien, Harriet F.; Kimbrough, Christine K. (2012). "New evidence for jute (Corchorus capsularis L.) in the Indus civilization". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 4 (2): 137–143. doi:10.1007/s12520-012-0088-1. ISSN 1866-9557.
  27. ↑ Mithen, Steven J. (2006). After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000-5000 BC. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01999-7.
  28. ↑ Thapliyal, U. P. (2022-10-06). Chariot in Indian History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-78101-4.
  29. ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Oxford & IBH Publishing, 2002. [Provides an overview of technological advancements in the Indus Valley, including the wheel.]
  30. ↑ Cite error: The named reference :0 was used but no text was provided for refs named (see the help page).
  31. ↑ Allen, Glenn (2011-03-03). It Sucks to Know Me. Author House. ISBN 978-1-4567-3402-2.
  32. ↑ Keay, John (2001), India: A History, 13–14, Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
  33. ↑ "Rehman Dheri: One of the earliest planned cities in South Asia | Harappa". www.harappa.com. Retrieved 2021-03-10.
  34. ↑ Durrani, F.A.; Ali, Ihsan; Erdosy, G. (1995). "New Perspectives on Indus Urbanism from Rehman Dheri". East and West. 45 (1/4): 81–96. ISSN 0012-8376. JSTOR 29757206.
  35. ↑ Jane McIntosh, The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives ; ABC-CLIO, 2008; ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2 ; pp. 231, 346.
  36. ↑ Arthur Coterell (1980). The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations. Rainbird Publishers. pp. 176–178. ISBN 0-7112-0036-X.
  37. ↑ "Developments in water dams and water harvesting systems throughout history in different civilizations" (PDF).
  38. ↑ "DAMS IN ANCIENT INDIA" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  39. ↑ "The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-11-30. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
  40. ↑ Kenoyer, Jonathan M.; Heuston, Kimberley Burton (2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195222432.
  41. ↑ "World's only surviving Bronze Age metropolis in Pakistan faces ruin". Daily Telegraph. 2013-10-13. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2018-08-17.
  42. ↑ "Seated Buddha from Gandhara". Joy of Museums Virtual Tours. Archived from the original on 2022-09-27. Retrieved 2024-06-22.
  43. ↑ "The Oldest Buddha Statues | Gandhara Buddha Statues". www.antique-buddhas.com. Retrieved 2024-06-22.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Kulke, Hermann & Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India. Routledge. 22. ISBN 0-415-32920-5.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Vibha, Tripathi (2018). "Metals and Metallurgy in Harappan Civilization". Indian Journal of History of Science. 53 (3). doi:10.16943/ijhs/2018/v53i3/49460.
  46. ↑ Venable, Shannon L. (2011). Gold: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 264. ISBN 978-0313-384318.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse (Jr.), Rayner W. (2007). Jewelry making Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. ISBN 0-313-33507-9.
  48. ↑ McNeil, Ian (1990). An encyclopedia of the history of technology. Taylor & Francis. 852. ISBN 0-415-01306-2.
  49. ↑ Satyawadi, Sudha (July 1, 1994). Proto-Historic Pottery of Indus Valley Civilization; Study of Painted Motif. D.K. Printworld. p. 324. ISBN 978-8124600306.
  50. ↑ Blackman, M. James; et al. (1992). The Production and Distribution of Stoneware Bangles at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa as Monitored by Chemical Characterization Studies. Madison, WI, USA: Prehistory Press. pp. 37–44.
  51. ↑ Mark Kenoyer, Jonathan (1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press. p. 260.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "Cashmere | Luxury Wool, Animal Fibre & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-07-18. Retrieved 2024-07-23.
  53. ↑ "Ancient Textiles of the Indus Valley Region By Jonathan Mark Kenoyer University of Wisconsin, Madison" (PDF).
  54. ↑ Sheraza Number (2004). Kashmir Academy Arts and Culture.(ed.), Jeelani Allaie
  55. ↑ Rafiabadi, H. N. (2005). Saints and saviours of Islam. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-555-4.
  56. ↑ Zutshi, Chitralekha (2014). Kashmir's Contested Pasts: Narratives, Geographies, and the Historical Imagination. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199089369.
  57. ↑ Morley, Iain; Renfrew, Colin (2010-04-26). The Archaeology of Measurement: Comprehending Heaven, Earth and Time in Ancient Societies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11990-0.
  58. ↑ Ahmed, Mukhtar (2014-10-25). Ancient Pakistan - an Archaeological History: Volume III: Harappan Civilization - the Material Culture. Amazon. ISBN 978-1-4959-6643-9.
  59. ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.
  60. ↑ For the etching technique, see MacKay, Ernest (1925). "Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (4): 699. JSTOR 25220818.
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  78. ↑ MSNBC (2008). Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry.
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  85. ↑ Ingerman, P. Z. (1967). ""Pāṇini Backus Form" suggested". Communications of the ACM. 10 (3): 137. doi:10.1145/363162.363165. S2CID 52817672.
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  87. ↑ Small, Ernest (2004). "History and Lore of Sesame in Southwest Asia". Economic Botany. 58 (3). New York Botanical Garden Press: 329–353. doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0329:AR]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 4256831. S2CID 198159338.
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  89. ↑ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1): 1-30 [10-1 & 27]
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  93. ↑ "CERN Courier - reporting on international high-energy physics". CERN Courier. Retrieved 2024-07-21.
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  96. ↑ "Abdus Salam - Biography". Nobelprize.org. 1996-11-21. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
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  113. ↑ Baru, Sanjaya (1998). "Mahbub ul Haq and Human Development: A Tribute". Economic and Political Weekly. 33 (35): 2275–2279. JSTOR 4407121.
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