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Achaemenid Pakistan

Provincial division of the Achaemenid empire. The region of Pakistan (Indus Valley) was formally incorporated into the empire through provincial divisions known as Satrapies: these were Gandāra, Hindush, and Sattagydia, Gedrosia and Arachosia.

Achaemenid Pakistan, or Achaemenid Indus Valley, refers to a period in the history of Pakistan from about 535 BCE to around 338 BCE when the region was part of the Achaemenid Empire. Around 535 BCE, the Persian king Cyrus the Great began a long campaign to bring parts of ancient Pakistan into his growing Achaemenid Empire. In this first campaign, the Persian army took control of a large area west of the Indus River, marking the early eastern borders of their new empire. After Cyrus' death around 530 BCE, his successor, Darius the Great, continued the campaign. Darius re-conquered former provinces and expanded the empire's borders further. By around 518 BCE, the Persian army moved deeper into the subcontinent and began a second phase of conquest, reaching regions up to the Jhelum River in Punjab region of Pakistan. At its height, the Persian Empire controlled most of what is now Pakistan.

Achaemenid coin, an imitation of an Athenian coin type.

The first solid evidence of Persian rule in the region comes from the Behistun Inscription, which dates to around 518 BCE. Persian expansion into the Indus Valley happened in stages, starting in the northern parts of the Indus River and moving south. According to Achaemenid-era inscriptions, Pakistan was divided into provinces called Satrapies: the satrapies were Gandāra, Hindush, Sattagydia, Gedrosia (Maka), and Arachosia. The Satrapy of Hindush was the richest of all the Achaemenid Empire’s provinces and provided 32% of the annual tributes. It was unique among the Achaemenid satrapies because it paid its tribute in gold. At the time of Herodotus, the exchange rate was 1 part gold to 13 parts silver by weight.

The Achaemenid rule over the Indus Valley slowly weakened under successive rulers and ended with the Greek conquest of Persia led by Alexander the Great. During this period, local independent kings, such as Abisares, Cleophis, Porus, and Taxiles, emerged. Many aristocratic republics, known as gaṇasaṅghas, also appeared. These local leaders and republics later faced Alexander’s army when it entered the region for his campaign, marking the beginning of the Hellenic period in Pakistan. The Achaemenid Empire set a model of governance through satrapies, which was later used by Alexander’s Macedonian Empire, the Indo-Scythians, and the Kushan Empire.

Background and invasion

India (Indus Valley) appears to the east of the inhabited world according to Herodotus, 500 BCE.

Ruins at Bhir Mound representing the city of Taxila during the Achaemenid period.

Ancient Pakistan had long maintained trade relations with the Near East. During the reign of Cyrus the Great (c. 600–530 BCE), the Achaemenid Empire expanded significantly, showing a direct interest in the Indus Valley region.

Cyrus the Great

The conquest of the region is believed to have begun around 535 BCE during the time of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus likely reached the banks of the Indus River and organized the conquered territories into the Satrapy of Gandara (Old Persian cuneiform: 𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼, Gadāra, also written as Gaⁿdāra because the nasal "n" was not used in Old Persian script) according to the Behistun Inscription. The Behistun Inscription also refers to this province as Paruparaesanna (Greek: Parapamisadae) in its Babylonian and Elamite versions. This province covered a larger area than Gandhara itself.

Accounts from writers like Xenophon and Ctesias, who wrote Indica, suggest that Cyrus conquered parts of the Indus region. Another Achaemenid province in Pakistan, Sattagydia (𐎰𐎫𐎦𐎢𐏁, Thataguš), mentioned in the Behistun Inscription, was likely next to Gandhara, though its exact location is unclear. Some sources, like Fleming, suggest it was situated between Arachosia and the middle Indus. Fleming also mentions Maka, in the area of Gedrosia, as one of the satrapies in the Indus region.

Darius I

Darius I on his tomb.

Darius I, who succeeded Cyrus the Great, began his rule around 518 BCE. This date is mentioned in the Behistun Inscription and marks the time when Gandhara in Punjab was securely under Achaemenid control. Darius I also conquered another region called "Hidūš" (Old Persian cuneiform: 𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁, H-i-du-u-š, also transliterated as Hiⁿdūš since the nasal "n" before consonants was omitted in the Old Persian script, and simplified as Hindush) in his inscriptions. This region, known as Hindush in Old Persian, is thought to correspond to the Indus Valley. The Hamadan Gold and Silver Tablet inscription of Darius I also mentions to his conquests in the Indus Valley.

The exact boundaries of the province of Hindush are unclear. Some historians believe it covered the middle and lower Indus Valley and what is now modern Sindh. However, there is no evidence of Achaemenid presence in these areas, and no gold deposits, which Herodotus says was produced in vast quantities by this Province, have been found there. It is also possible that Hindush included Taxila and Western Punjab, where there are signs of Persian influence. The Bhir Mound site in Taxila is considered to be the capital of Achaemenid rule in Pakistan due to the discovery of Achaemenid-style pottery.

Herodotus tells us that Darius I sent the Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indus River. After 30 months of travel, Scylax returned to Egypt, and the routes between the Near East and Indus were used by Darius.

Also according to Herodotus, the Achaemenid Empire's provinces in the Indus Valley (Pakistan) for tax purposes included Gandhara, Sattagydia, Dadicae, and Aparytae as the 7th province, while Hindush (Ἰνδός, "Indos" in Greek) was the 20th tax region.

Achaemenid army

Greek (Ionian), Scythian (Sakas) and Persian soldiers of the Achaemenid army, as described on Achaemenid royal tombs from circa 500 to 338 BCE.

The Achaemenid Empire was always involved in wars, either conquering new lands or suppressing rebellions. To manage this, the empire maintained a professional standing army made up of personnel from its various provinces and territories that included modern-Pakistan. The army also included many different ethnic groups such as Bactrians, Sakas (Scythians), Parthians, Sogdians, Greeks, Egyptians, and Ethiopians. These groups were likely part of the Achaemenid army during its campaigns in the Indus Valley (Pakistan).

Inscriptions and accounts

The events of the Achaemenid period in the Indus Valley (ancient Pakistan) are recorded in various inscriptions and writings. Important sources include the Behistun Inscription, the Naqsh-i-Rustam Inscription, and the writings of Herodotus (483–431 BCE). Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda, who was sent by Darius I to explore the Indus, left behind an account known as the Periplous. Fragments of this account are available from other sources. Hecataeus of Miletus (circa 500 BCE) also wrote about the Achaemenid satrapies along the Indus.

Indus satrapies
on the Statue of Darius I

𓉔𓈖𓂧𓍯𓇌
h-n-d-wꜣ-y
Hindush

𓐠𓂧𓎼𓍯𓍒
sꜣ-d-g-wꜣ-ḏꜣ
Sattagydia

𓉔𓃭𓐍𓂧𓇌
h-rw-ḫ-d-y
Gandara

Behistun inscription

The 'DB' Behistun Inscription of Darius I (circa 510 BCE) lists Gandara (𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼, Gadāra) and Sattagydia (𐎰𐎫𐎦𐎢𐏁, Thataguš) as part of the Achaemenid Empire:

King Darius says: These are the countries which are subject unto me, and by the grace of Ahuramazda I became king of them: Persia [Pârsa], Elam [Ûvja], Babylonia [Bâbiruš], Assyria [Athurâ], Arabia [Arabâya], Egypt [Mudrâya], the countries by the Sea, Lydia [Sparda], the Greeks [Yauna (Ionia)], Media [Mâda], Armenia [Armina], Cappadocia [Katpatuka], Parthia [Parthava], Drangiana [Zraka], Aria [Haraiva], Chorasmia [Uvârazmîy], Bactria [Bâxtriš], Sogdia [Suguda], Gandara [Gadāra], Scythia [Saka], Sattagydia [Thataguš], Arachosia [Harauvatiš] and Maka [Maka]; twenty-three lands in all.

— Behistun Inscription of Darius I.

The dating of the inscription shows that the Achaemenids first conquered the regions of Gandara, Sattagydia and Arachosia in ancient Pakistan around 518 BCE.

Statue of Darius inscriptions

Hinduš (Sindh) is listed among 24 countries under the Achaemenid Empire. It is shown with the drawing of a kneeling person and a hieroglyphic cartridge reading 𓉔𓈖𓂧𓍯𓇌 (h-n-d-wꜣ-y) on the Egyptian Statue of Darius I, which is now in the National Museum of Iran. Sattagydia also appears (𓐠𓂧𓎼𓍯𓍒, sꜣ-d-g-wꜣ-ḏꜣ, Sattagydia), and probably Gandara (𓉔𓃭𓐍𓂧𓇌, h-rw-ḫ-d-y, although this could be Arachosia), with their own illustrations.

Apadana Palace foundation tablets

Gold foundation plate of Darius I in the Apadana Palace with the word Hidauv (Hiduš).

Four gold and silver foundation tablets (circa 515 BCE) found in the Apadana Palace in Persepolis contain an inscription by Darius I. This inscription describes his empire from the Indus Valley (Pakistan) in the east to Lydia in the west, and from the Scythians in the north to the Kingdom of Kush in the south. This inscription is known as the DPh inscription.

Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", locative of "Hiduš", i.e. "Indus valley") to Lydia (Old Persian: "Spardâ") - [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house!

— DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace

Naqsh-e Rustam inscription

The DSe and DSm inscriptions of Darius I in Susa mention Sattagydia, Gandara, and Hindush among the lands he ruled.

The Naqsh-e Rustam DNa inscription, mentioning the three Indus territories: Sattagydia (𐎰𐎫𐎦𐎢𐏁, Thataguš), Gandara (𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼, Gadāra) and Hindush (𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁, Hidūš) as part of the Achaemenid Empire.

Hidush (𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁 in Old Persian cuneiform) later also appears later as a Satrapy in the Naqsh-i-Rustam inscription at the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 486 BCE. The DNa inscription on Darius' tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis records Gadāra (Gandāra) along with Hiduš (Hindush) and Thataguš (Sattagydia) in the list of satrapies.

King Darius says: By the favor of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara (Gadāra), Sindh (Hiduš), the haoma-drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks (Yauna), the Scythians across the sea (Sakâ), Thrace, the petasos-wearing Greeks [Yaunâ], the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians.

— Naqsh-e Rustam inscription of Darius I (circa 490 BCE)

Strabo

The Greek geographer Strabo, in his work "Geography" (Book XV), confirms the Achaemenid control along the Indus River. He describes the region and mentions that some parts along the Indus were controlled by the Persians:

The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the Paropamisus mountain: then, towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards the south, the Gedroseni, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Hindush (Ἰνδῶν) [Referred to the people of the Indus (Pakistan)], although they formerly belonged to the Persians.

— The Geography of Strabo, Book XV, Chapter 2, 9.

Achaemenid administration

Eastern territories of the Achaemenid Empire.

The names of the three Ancient Pakistani provinces still appear in trilingual cuneiform labels above their respective figures on the tomb of Artaxerxes II (c.358 BCE).

In the later period of Achaemenid rule, the administrative structure in the Indus Valley (Pakistan) under Persian control is somewhat unclear. The provinces are traditionally called "satrapies," but there is no definitive evidence that these regions were governed by satraps, as was common in other parts of the empire. When Alexander the Great invaded, he encountered local rulers known as hyparchs (Vice-Regents), who were subordinate to the Achaemenid rulers.

Achaemenid List of Provinces in Pakistan

Darius I mentioned three Indus provinces: Sattagydia (Thataguš), Gandāra (Gandhara), and Hidūš (Sind), where "Sind" is understood to mean the broader Indus Valley. Gandhara encompassed the Peshawar Valley, bounded by the Swat District to the north, Afghanistan to the west, the Indus River to the southeast, and the Kohat District to the south. The capital of this region was Pushkalavati. Archaeological excavations conducted by Mortimer Wheeler in 1962 at Pushkalavati (Charsadda) revealed structures and artifacts dating back to the Achaemenid period.

The Satrapy of Hindush, which included the Punjab region within the Indus Valley, was bordered by the Hazara region to the north, the Indus River to the west, and the Jhelum River to the south and east. The capital of this satrapy was Bhir Mound in Takshashila (Taxila). John Marshall's excavations at Bhir Mound between 1913 and 1934 uncovered fortified structures, canals, and ornamental jewelry from the Achaemenid period.

These regions continued to be represented among the Achaemenid provinces on the tombs of subsequent Persian rulers after Darius, with the exception of the last ruler, Darius III, who was defeated by Alexander the Great at the Battle of Gaugamela. The last known reference to Gandhara as an Achaemenid province appears on on the list of the tomb of Artaxerxes II around 358 BCE, indicating that the Indus Valley remained under Achaemenid control until at least 338 BCE.

Satrapy of Gedrosia (Maka)

The territory of Maka (𓅓𓂝𓎼, M-ā-g) on the Statue of Darius I.

Makan on the tomb of Artaxerxes I, c. 430 BC.

Makan with cuneiform identification label on the tomb of Artaxerxes II, c. 360 BC.

Maka soldier of the Achaemenid army, c. 338 BC. Tomb of Artaxerxes III.

Another important Satrapy (province) of Achaemenid in Pakistan was Gedrosia, modern-day Makran coast of Baluchistan, Pakistan. Maka (𐎶𐎣 Maka) is believed to be another name for Gedrosia. According to Fleming, Maka, in the area of Gedrosia, can be considered one of the Indus satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire. It was an important early eastern satrapy of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire. The Babylonians had made voyages using Maka to communicate with the Indus Valley. Herodotus on several occasions mentions the contributions of the "Mykians", who inhabited the eastern portion of the Achaemenid Empire. They are mentioned as "the men from Maka" in daiva inscriptions. The "Daiva inscription" is one of the most important of all Achaemenid inscriptions. The Mykians served in the army of Xerxes the Great at the battle of Thermopylae. They are also thought to be responsible for inventions such as qanats and underground drainage galleries that bring water from an aquifer on the piedmont to gardens or palm groves on the plains. These inventions were very important reasons behind the success of the empire. The Mykians of the other side of ancient Maka, the present day region of Balochistan and Sindh, are thought to have later become independent, as they are not mentioned in Arrian of Nicomedia's account of the campaigns of Alexander the Great; he mentions only the Omani side of Maka, which he calls "Maketa". The reasons for this may have been the arguably unjust rule of Xerxes.

List of Herodotus

Herodotus, gives a slightly different account. In his writings (III-91 and III-94), he groups some provinces together when he described the tribute paid by each territory, such as the Sattagydae, Gandarii, Dadicae, and Aparytae, which he together refers to as "the 7th Province." In contrast, he designates Hindush "Indos"(Ἰνδός) as "the 20th province." Historian A. T. Olmstead suggests that this grouping may indicate some loss of territory over time.

Despite the weakening of Persian control by around 380 BCE, the region of Hindush remained loyal to the Achaemenid Empire until Alexander's invasion. Persian influence in the region persisted until the late 4th century BCE. Circa 400 BC, Ctesias of Cnidus wrote that the Persian king was receiving numerous gifts from the kings of "Sind" (Hindūš). Darius III, the last Achaemenid ruler, still had some Hindush units in his army, though their numbers were significantly reduced compared to earlier periods. Ctesias also reported elephants and Hindush mahouts making demonstrations of the elephant's strength at the Achaemenid court. Notably, Darius III deployed 15 war elephants from the Indus region during the Battle of Gaugamela against Alexander the Great.

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  Ancient Pakistani soldiers on the tomb of Darius I (c.500 BCE)
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  Ancient Pakistani soldiers on the tomb of Xerxes I (c.480 BCE)
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  Ancient Pakistani soldiers on the tomb of Artaxerxes I (c.430 BCE)
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  Ancient Pakistani soldiers on the tomb of Darius II (c.410 BCE)
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  Ancient Pakistani soldiers on the tomb of Artaxerxes II (c.370 BCE)
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  Ancient Pakistani soldiers on the tomb of Artaxerxes III (c.340 BCE)

Tributes from Ancient Pakistan

Apadana Palace

Hindush Tribute Bearers on the Apadana Staircase 8, circa 500 BCE.

A small but heavy load: Hindush tribute bearer at Apadana, probably carrying gold dust. 1 liter of gold weighs 19.3kg.

The reliefs at the Apadana Palace in Persepolis describe tribute bearers from 23 satrapies visiting the Achaemenid court. These are located at the southern end of the Apadana Staircase. Among the foreigners the Arabs, the Thracians, the Bactrians, the Hindush (from the Indus valley area), the Parthians, the Cappadocians, the Elamites or the Medians. The people from the Indus valley are bare-chested, except for their leader, and barefooted and wear the dhoti. They bring baskets with vases inside, carry axes, and drive along a donkey. One man in the procession carries a small but visibly heavy load of four jars on a yoke, suggesting that he was carrying some of the gold dust paid as tribute to the Achaemenid court.

According to the Naqsh-e Rustam inscription of Darius I (circa 490 BCE), there were three Achaemenid Satrapies in the subcontinent: Sattagydia, Gandara, Hidūš.

Tribute payments

Volume of annual tribute per district, in the Achaemenid Empire, according to Herodotus.

The conquered area was the most fertile and populous region of the Achaemenid Empire. An amount of tribute was fixed according to the richness of each territory.

Herodotus published a list of tribute-paying nations, classifying them in 20 Provinces. The Province of Indos (Ἰνδός, the Indus valley) formed the 20th Province, and was the richest and most populous of the Achaemenid Provinces.

The Indons (Ἰνδῶν) [Referred to the people of the Indus (Pakistan)] made up the twentieth province. These are more in number than any nation known to me, and they paid a greater tribute than any other province, namely three hundred and sixty talents of gold dust.

— Herodotus, III 94.

According to Herodotus, the "Indons" ('Ινδοι, Indoi)), as separate from the Gandarei and the Sattagydians, formed the 20th taxation Province, and were required to supply gold dust in tribute to the Achaemenid central government for an amount of 360 Euboean talents (equivalent to about 8300 kg or 8.3 tons of gold annually, a volume of gold that would fit in a cube of side 75 cm). The exchange rate between gold and silver at the time of Herodotus being 13 to 1, this was equal in value to the very large amount of 4680 Euboean talents of silver, equivalent to 3600 Babylonian talents of silver (equivalent in value to about 108 tons of silver annually). The country of the "Indons" ('Ινδοι, Indoi) was the Achaemenid district paying the largest tribute, and alone represented 32% of the total tribute revenues of the whole Achaemenid Empire. It also means that Indos was the richest Achaemenid region in the subcontinent, much richer than Gandara or Sattagydia. However the amount of gold in question is quite enormous, so there is a possibility that Herodotus was mistaken and that his own sources actually only meant something like the gold equivalent of 360 Babylonian talents of silver.

Gandaran delegation at Apadana Palace.

The territories of Gandara, Sattagydia, Dadicae (north-west of the Kashmir Valley) and the Aparytae (Afridis) are named separately, and were aggregated together for taxation purposes, forming the 7th Achaemenid Province, and paying overall a much lower tribute of 170 talents together (about 5151 kg, or 5.1 tons of silver), hence only about 1.5% of the total revenues of the Achaemenid Empire:

The Sattagydae (Σατταγύδαι), Gandarii (Γανδάριοι), Dadicae, and Aparytae (Ἀπαρύται) paid together a hundred and seventy talents; this was the seventh province

— Herodotus, III 91.

Ancient Pakistani soldiers of the three territories of Sattagydia, Gandhara and Hindush respectively, supporting the throne of Xerxes I on his tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam. See also complete relief. c. 480 BCE.

Indon soldiers of the Achaemenid army participated to the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE).

The Indons (Ἰνδῶν) [Refered to the people of the Indus (Pakistan)] also supplied Yaka wood (teak) for the construction of Achaemenid palaces, as well as war elephants such as those used at Gaugamela. The Susa inscriptions of Darius explain that Indian ivory and teak were sold on Persian markets, and used in the construction of his palace.

Tax districts

Following is the order of the districts given by Herodotus, Histories, III.90–94. All five Satrapies of the Indus (Ancient Pakistan) are listed with their contribution in tax. Hindush was the richest of all Achaemenid Satrapies and contributed 32% of the entire Tax payments of the empire.. For comparison, it is given in the rightmost column.

District	Satrapies	Tribute per District	% of total	Darius's provinces
VII	Sattagydia, Gandhara, Dadicae, Aparytae	170 Babylonian talents of silver	1.5%	19. Gandhara
XX	Hindush	360 Euboïc talents of gold dust, equivalent to 4680 Euboïc talents of silver, or 3600 Babylonian talents of silver.	32%	17. Arachosia, 18. Hindush
Total	Total of all annual tributes, in Babylonian talent silver equivalent	11,200 Babylonian talents of silver, equivalent to 14,560 Euboïc talents of silver	100%

Contribution to Achaemenid war efforts

Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE)

Indians were employed in the Achaemenid army of Xerxes in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE). All troops were stationned in Sardis, Lydia, during the winter of 481-480 BCE to prepare for the invasion. In the spring of 480 BCE "Indons (Ἰνδῶν) troops marched with Xerxes's army across the Hellespont". It was the "first-ever force from the Indus (Pakistan) to fight on the continent of Europe", storming Greek troops at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE, and fighting as one of the main nations until the final Battle of Platea in 479 BCE.

Herodotus, in his description of the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army invading Greece, described the equipment of the Indons (Ἰνδῶν) [Refered to the people of the Indus (Pakistan)],:

The Indons (Ἰνδῶν) wore garments of tree-wool, and carried bows of reed and iron-tipped arrows of the same. Such was their equipment; they were appointed to march under the command of Pharnazathres son of Artabates.

— Herodotus VII 65

Probable Spartan hoplite (Vix crater, c. 500 BCE), and a Hindush warrior of the Achaemenid army (tomb of Xerxes I, c. 480 BCE), at the time of the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BCE).

Herodotus also explains that the Indon cavalry under the Achaemenids had an equipment similar that of their foot soldiers:

The Indons were armed in like manner as their foot; they rode swift horses and drove chariots drawn by horses and wild asses.

— Herodotus VII 86

The Gandharis had a different equipment, akin to that of the Bactrians:

The Bactrians in the army wore a headgear most like to the Median, carrying their native bows of reed, and short spears. (...) The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarians, and Dadicae in the army had the same equipment as the Bactrians. The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander Artabazus son of Pharnaces, the Sogdians Azanes son of Artaeus, the Gandarians and Dadicae Artyphius son of Artabanus.

— Herodotus VII 64-66

Destruction of Athens and Battle of Plataea (479 BCE)

After the first part of the campaign directly under the orders Xerxes I, the Indon (Ἰνδῶν) [Refered to the people of the Indus (Pakistan)], troops are reported to have stayed in Greece as one of the 5 main nations among the 300,000 elite troops of General Mardonius. They fought in the last stages of the war, took part in the Destruction of Athens, but were finally vanquished at the Battle of Platea:

Indian corps at the Battle of Plataea, 479 BCE.

Mardonius there chose out first all the Persians called Immortals, save only Hydarnes their general, who said that he would not quit the king's person; and next, the Persian cuirassiers, and the thousand horse, and the Medes and Sacae and Bactrians and Indons, alike their footmen and the rest of the horsemen. He chose these nations entire; of the rest of his allies he picked out a few from each people, the goodliest men and those that he knew to have done some good service... Thereby the whole number, with the horsemen, grew to three hundred thousand men.

— Herodotus VIII, 113.

At the final Battle of Platea in 479 BCE, Indons formed one of the main corps of Achaemenid troops (one of "the greatest of the nations"). They were one of the main battle corps, positioned near the center of the Achaemenid battle line, between the Bactrians and the Sakae, facing against the enemy Greek troops of "Hermione and Eretria and Styra and Chalcis". According to modern estimates, the Bactrians, Indons and Sakae probably numbered about 20,000 men altogether, whereas the Persian troops on their left amounted to about 40,000. There were also Greek allies of the Persians, positioned on the right, whom Herodotus numbers at 50,000, a number which however might be "extravagant", and is nowadays estimated to around 20,000. Indons also supplied part of the cavalry, the total of which was about 5,000.

Depictions

Indon soldiers of the three territories of Gandara, Sattagydia (Tathagatus) and Hindush are shown, together with soldiers of all the other nations, supporting the throne of their Achaemenid ruler, at Naqsh-e Rostam on the tombs of Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I and Darius II, and at Persepolis on the tombs of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III. The last Achaemenid ruler Darius III never had time to finish his own tomb due to his hasty defeat by Alexander the Great, and therefore does not have such depictions. The soldiers from India are characterized by their particular clothing, only composed of a loin cloth and sandals, with bare upper body, in contrast to all the other ethnicities of the Achaemenid army, who are fully clothed, and in contrast also to the neighbouring provinces of Bactria or Arachosia, who are also fully clothed.

The three types of Indon (Indus) soldiers still appear (upper right corner) among the soldiers of the Achaemenid Empire on the tomb of Artaxerxes III (who died in 338 BCE).

The presence of the three ethnicities of Indon soldiers on all the tombs of the Achaemenid rulers after Darius, except for the last ruler Darius III who was vanquished by Alexander at Gaugamela, suggests that the Indons (Ἰνδῶν) [Refered to the people of the Indus (Pakistan)] were under Achaemenid dominion at least until 338 BCE, the date of the end of the reign of Artaxerxes III, before the accession of Darius III, that is, less than 10 years before the campaigns of Alexander in the East and his victory at Gaugamela.

Indons at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE)

According to Arrian, Indon troops were still deployed under Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE). He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indons who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indons in questions were probably from the area of Gandara. Indon "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush.

Fifteen war elephants were also part of the army of Darius III at Gaugamela. They had specifically been brought from the Indus Valley. Still, it seems they did not participate to the final battle, probably because of fatigue. This was a relief for the armies of Alexander, who had no previous experience of combat against war elephants. The elephants were captured with the baggage train by the Greeks after the engagement.

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  Gandaran soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb.
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  Gandaran soldier (enhanced detail).
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  Sattagydian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb.
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  Sattagydian soldier (enhanced detail).
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  Hindush soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE. Xerxes I tomb.
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  Hindush soldier (enhanced detail).

Greek and Achaemenid coinage

Strike of an Achaemenid siglos, Kabul, Afghanistan, circa 5th century BCE. Archer king type. Coins of this type were also found in the Bhir Mound hoard in Taxila.

Achaemenid Empire coin minted in the Kabul Valley. Circa 500-380 BCE.

"Bent bar" minted under Achaemenid administration, of the type found in large quantities in the Chaman Hazouri hoard and the Bhir Mound hoard in Taxila.

Coins found in the Chaman Hazouri hoard in Kabul, the Shaikhan Dehri hoard in Pushkalavati in Gandhara, near Charsadda, as well as in the Bhir Mound hoard in Taxila, have revealed numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. These circulated in the area, at least as far as the Indus during the reign of the Achaemenids, who were in control of the areas as far as Gandhara.

Kabul and Bhir Mound hoards

The Kabul hoard, also called the Chaman Hazouri, Chaman Hazouri or Tchamani-i Hazouri hoard, is a coin hoard discovered in the vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan. The hoard, discovered in 1933, contained numerous Achaemenid coins as well as many Greek coins from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Approximately one thousand coins were in the hoard. The hoard is dated to approximately 380 BCE as no coins in the hoard were later than that date.

This numismatic discovery has been very important in studying and dating the history of coinage of India, since it is one of the very rare instances when punch-marked coins can actually be dated, due to their association with known and dated Greek and Achaemenid coins in the hoard. The hoard supports the view that punch-marked coins existed in 360 BCE, as suggested by literary evidence.

Daniel Schlumberger also considers that punch-marked bars, similar to the many punch-marked bars found in north-western India, initially originated in the Achaemenid Empire, rather than in the Indian heartland:

"The punch-marked bars were up to now considered to be Indian (...) However the weight standard is considered by some expert to be Persian, and now that we see them also being uncovered in the soil of Afghanistan, we must take into account the possibility that their country of origin should not be sought beyond the Indus, but rather in the oriental provinces of the Achaemenid Empire"

— Daniel Schlumberger, quoted from Trésors Monétaires, p.42.

Modern numismatists now tend to consider the Achaemenid punch-marked coins as the precursors of the Indian punch-marked coins.

Pushkalavati hoard

In 2007, a small coin hoard was discovered at the site of ancient Pushkalavati (the Shaikhan Dehri hoard) near Charsada in Pakistan. The hoard contained a tetradrachm minted in Athens circa 500/490-485/0 BCE, typically used as a currency for trade in the Achaemenid Empire, together with a number of local types as well as silver cast ingots. The Athens coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far to the east.

According to Joe Cribb, these early Greek coins were at the origin of Indian punch-marked coins, the earliest coins developed in India, which used minting technology derived from Greek coinage.

Influence of Achaemenid culture in the Indian subcontinent

Cultural exchanges: Taxila

Taxila

Persepolis

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Global location of Persepolis, capital of the Achaemenid Empire, and Taxila.

Taxila (site of Bhir Mound), the "most plausible candidate for the capital of Achaemenid Indus", was at the crossroad of the main trade roads of Asia, was probably populated by Persians, Greeks and other people from throughout the Achaemenid Empire. As reported by Strabo (XV, 1, 62), when Alexander the Great was in Taxila, one of his companions named Aristobulus, noticed that in the city the dead were being fed to the vultures, a clear allusion to the presence of Zoroastrianism. The renowned University of Taxila became the greatest learning centre in the region, and allowed for exchanges between people from various cultures.

Followers of the Buddha

Several contemporaries, and close followers, of the Buddha are said to have studied in Achaemenid Taxila: King Pasenadi of Kosala, a close friend of the Buddha, Bandhula, the commander of Pasedani's army, Aṅgulimāla, a close follower of the Buddha, and Jivaka, court doctor at Rajagriha and personal doctor of the Buddha. According to Stephen Batchelor, the Buddha may have been influenced by the experiences and knowledge acquired by some of his closest followers in Taxila.

Pāṇini

The 5th century BCE grammarian Pāṇini lived in an Achaemenid environment. He is said to have been born in the north-west, in Shalatula near Attock to the north-west of Taxila, in what was then a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire following the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, which technically made him a Persian subject.

Kautilya and Chandragupta Maurya

Kautilya, the influential Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, is also said to have been a professor teaching in Taxila. According to Buddhist legend, Kautilya brought Chandragupta Maurya, the future founder of the Mauryan Empire to Taxila as a child, and had him educated there in "all the sciences and arts" of the period, including military sciences, for a period of 7 to 8 years. These legends match Plutarch's assertion that Alexander the Great met with the young Chandragupta while campaigning in the Punjab.

The Persians may have later participated, together with Sakas and Greeks, in the campaigns of Chandragupta Maurya to gain the throne of Magadha circa 320 BCE. The Mudrarakshasa states that after Alexander's death, an alliance of "Shaka-Yavana-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika" was used by Chandragupta Maurya in his campaign to take the throne in Magadha and found the Mauryan Empire. The Sakas were Scythians, the Yavanas were Greeks, and the Parasikas were Persians. David Brainard Spooner theorized upon Chandragupta Maurya's conquest and claimed that "it was with largely the Persian army that he won the throne of India."

Scientific knowledge

Astronomical and astrological knowledge was also probably transmitted to the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent from Babylon during the 5th century BCE as a consequence of the Achaemenid presence in the region. Babylonian astronomy was the first form of astronomy to fully develop and likely influenced other civilizations. The spread of knowledge may have hastened with the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire.

According to David Pingree, elements of Achaemenid scientific knowledge, particularly works on omens and astronomy, were adopted by India (the subcontinent) from the 5th century BCE:

"India today is estimated to have about thirty million manuscripts, the largest body of handwritten reading material anywhere in the world. The literate culture of Indian science goes back to at least the fifth century B.C. ... as is shown by the elements of Mesopotamian omen literature and astronomy that entered India at that time."

Palatial art and architecture: Pataliputra

The Masarh lion. The sculptural style is "unquestionably Achaemenid".

Various artefacts tend to suggest some Perso-Hellenistic artistic influence in the subcontinent, mainly felt during the time of the Mauryan Empire. The sculpture of the Masarh lion, found near the Maurya capital of Pataliputra, raises the question of the Achaemenid and Greek influence on the art of the Maurya Empire, and on the western origins of stone carving in India. The lion is carved in Chunar sandstone, like the Pillars of Ashoka, and its finish is polished, a feature of the Maurya sculpture. According to S.P. Gupta, the sculptural style is unquestionably Achaemenid. This is particularly the case for the well-ordered tubular representation of whiskers (vibrissas) and the geometrical representation of inflated veins flush with the entire face. The mane, on the other hand, with tufts of hair represented in wavelets, is rather naturalistic. Very similar examples are however known in Greece and Persepolis. It is possible that this sculpture was made by an Achaemenid or Greek sculptor in India and either remained without effect, or was the Indian imitation of a Greek or Achaemenid model, somewhere between the fifth century B.C. and the first century B.C., although it is generally dated from the time of the Maurya Empire, around the 3rd century B.C.

The Pataliputra palace with its pillared hall shows decorative influences of the Achaemenid palaces and Persepolis and may have used the help of foreign craftsmen. Mauryan rulers may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments. This may be the result of the formative influence of craftsmen employed from Persia following the disintegration of the Achaemenid Empire after the conquests of Alexander the Great. The Pataliputra capital, or also the Hellenistic friezes of the Rampurva capitals, Sankissa, and the diamond throne of Bodh Gaya are other examples.

The renowned Mauryan polish, especially used in the Pillars of Ashoka, may also have been a technique imported from the Achaemenid Empire.

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  Ruins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site at Pataliputra.
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  Plan of the 80-column pillared hall in Pataliputra.
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  The Pataliputra capital, generally described as "Perso-Hellenistic".
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  Griffin of Pataliputra.
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  Lotus motifs in Pataliputra.

Rock-cut architecture

Lycian Tomb of Payava (dated 375-360 BCE) and Lomas Rishi cave entrance (dated circa 250 BCE).

Ajanta Cave 9 (dated 1st century BCE)

The similarity of the 4th century BCE Lycian barrel-vaulted tombs, such as the tomb of Payava, in the western part of the Achaemenid Empire, with the Indian architectural design of the Chaitya (starting at least a century later from circa 250 BCE, with the Lomas Rishi caves in the Barabar caves group), suggests that the designs of the Lycian rock-cut tombs travelled to India along the trade routes across the Achaemenid Empire.

Early on, James Fergusson, in his Illustrated Handbook of Architecture, while describing the very progressive evolution from wooden architecture to stone architecture in various ancient civilizations, has commented that "In India, the form and construction of the older Buddhist temples resemble so singularly these examples in Lycia". The structural similarities, down to many architectural details, with the Chaitya-type Indian Buddhist temple designs, such as the "same pointed form of roof, with a ridge", are further developed in The cave temples of India. The Lycian tombs, dated to the 4th century BCE, are either free-standing or rock-cut barrel-vaulted sarcophagi, placed on a high base, with architectural features carved in stone to imitate wooden structures. There are numerous rock-cut equivalents to the free-standing structures and decorated with reliefs. Fergusson went on to suggest an "Indian connection", and some form of cultural transfer across the Achaemenid Empire. The ancient transfer of Lycian designs for rock-cut monuments to India is considered as "quite probable".

Art historian David Napier has also proposed a reverse relationship, claiming that the Payava tomb was a descendant of an ancient South Asian style, and that Payava may actually have been a Graeco-Indian named "Pallava".

Monumental columns: the Pillars of Ashoka

Highly polished Achaemenid load-bearing column with lotus capital and animals, Persepolis, c. 5th-4th BCE.

Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath.

Regarding the Pillars of Ashoka, there has been much discussion of the extent of influence from Achaemenid Persia, since the column capitals supporting the roofs at Persepolis have similarities, and the "rather cold, hieratic style" of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka especially shows "obvious Achaemenid and Sargonid influence".

Hellenistic influence has also been suggested. In particular the abaci of some of the pillars (especially the Rampurva bull, the Sankissa elephant and the Allahabad pillar capital) use bands of motifs, like the bead and reel pattern, the ovolo, the flame palmettes, lotuses, which likely originated from Greek and Near-Eastern arts. Such examples can also be seen in the remains of the Mauryan capital city of Pataliputra.

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  Frieze of Rampurva capitals, alternating palmettes and lotus .
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  Frieze of Sankissa.
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  Frieze of the diamond throne of Bodh Gaya.

Aramaic language and script

The Aramaic Inscription of Taxila, dated circa 260 BCE. Taxila Museum, Pakistan.

The Aramaic language, official language of the Achaemenid Empire, started to be used in the Indian territories. Some of the Edicts of Ashoka in the north-western areas of Ashoka's territory, in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan, used Aramaic (the official language of the former Achaemenid Empire), together with Prakrit and Greek (the language of the neighbouring Greco-Bactrian kingdom and the Greek communities in Ashoka's realm).

The Indian Kharosthi script shows a clear dependency on the Aramaic alphabet but with extensive modifications to support the sounds found in Indic languages. One model is that the Aramaic script arrived with the Achaemenid Empire's conquest of the Indus River (modern Pakistan) in 500 BCE and evolved over the next 200+ years, reaching its final form by the 3rd century BCE where it appears in some of the Edicts of Ashoka.

Edicts of Ashoka

The Edicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE) may show Achaemenid influences, including formulaic parallels with Achaemenid inscriptions, presence of Iranian loanwords (in Aramaic inscriptions), and the very act of engraving edicts on rocks and mountains (compare for example Behistun inscription). To describe his own edicts, Ashoka used the word Lipī (𑀮𑀺𑀧𑀺), now generally simply translated as "writing" or "inscription". It is thought the word "lipi", which is also orthographed "dipi" (𐨡𐨁𐨤𐨁) in the two Kharosthi versions of the rock edicts, comes from an Old Persian prototype dipî (𐎮𐎡𐎱𐎡) also meaning "inscription", which is used for example by Darius I in his Behistun inscription, suggesting borrowing and diffusion. There are other borrowings of Old Persian terms for writing-related words in the Edicts of Ashoka, such as nipista or nipesita (𐨣𐨁𐨤𐨁𐨯𐨿𐨟, "written" and "made to be written") in the Kharoshthi version of Major Rock Edict No.4, which can be related to the word nipištā (𐎴𐎡𐎱𐎡𐏁𐎫𐎠, "written") from the daiva inscription of Xerxes at Persepolis.

Several of the Edicts of Ashoka, such as the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription or the Taxila inscription were written in Aramaic, one of the official languages of the former Achaemenid Empire.

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  The word Dipi ("Edict") in the Edicts of Ashoka, identical with the Achaemenid word for "writing".
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  The Kharoshthi script is generally considered as a development from Aramaic.
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  The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription of Ashoka (circa 256 BCE) in Greek and Aramaic.

Figurines of West Asian foreigners in Mathura, Sarnath and Patna (4th-2nd century BCE)

Figurines of foreigners in India

"Ethnic head", Mathura, c. 2nd century BCE. Mathura Museum.

"Persian Nobleman clad in coat dupatta trouser and turban", Mathura, c. 2nd Century BCE. Mathura Museum.

Figure of a foreigner, from Sarnath.

Some relatively high quality terracotta statuettes have been recovered from the Mauryan Empire strata in the excavations of Mathura in northern India. Most of these terracottas show what appears to be female deities or mother goddesses. However, several figures of foreigners also appear in the terracottas from the 4th to the 2nd century BCE, which are either described simply as "foreigners" or Persian or Iranian because of their foreign features. These figurines might reflect the increased contacts of Indians with Iranian people during this period. Several of these seem to represent foreign soldiers who visited India during the Mauryan period and influenced modellers in Mathura with their peculiar ethnic features and uniforms. One of the terracotta statuettes, a man nicknamed the "Persian nobleman" and dated to the 2nd century BCE, can be seen wearing a coat, scarf, trousers and a turban.

S.P. Gupta also mentions the "male heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath", which according to him attest to the presence of a foreign elite in the Gangetic plains during the Mauryan or late Mauryan period. This elite was West Asian, specifically related to the Pahlavas and Sakas based in Iran and Afghanistan, and their presence was a consequence of their eastern forays into India.

Religion

According to Ammianus Marcellinus, a 4th-century CE Roman author, Hystaspes, the father of Darius I, studied under the Brahmanas in India, thus contributing to the development of the religion of the Magi (Zoroastrianism):

"Hystaspes, a very wise monarch, the father of Darius. Who while boldly penetrating into the remoter districts of upper India, came to a certain woody retreat, of which with its tranquil silence the Brahmans, men of sublime genius, were the possessors. From their teaching he learnt the principles of the motion of the world and of the stars, and the pure rites of sacrifice, as far as he could; and of what he learnt he infused some portion into the minds of the Magi, which they have handed down by tradition to later ages, each instructing his own children, and adding to it their own system of divination".

— Ammianus Marcellinus, XXIII. 6.

In ancient sources, Hystapes is sometimes considered as identical with Vishtaspa (the Avestan and Old Persian name for Hystapes), an early patron of Zoroaster.

Historically, the life of the Buddha also coincided with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley. The Achaemenid occupation of the areas of Gandara and Hinduš, which was to last for about two centuries, was accompanied by Achaemenid religions, reformed Mazdaism or early Zoroastrianism, to which Buddhism might also have in part reacted. In particular, the ideas of the Buddha may have partly consisted in a rejection of the "absolutist" or "perfectionist" ideas contained in these Achaemenid religions.

Still, according to Christopher I. Beckwith, commenting on the content of the Edicts of Ashoka, the early Buddhist concepts of karma, rebirth, and affirming that good deeds will be rewarded in this life and the next, in Heaven, probably find their origin in Achaemenid Mazdaism, which had been introduced in India from the time of the Achaemenid conquest of Gandara.

List of satrapies

Several satrapies were founded by the Achaemenid empire in the Indian subcontinent, including;

• Gandāra satrapy
• Hindush satrapy
• Sattagydia satrapy

Other important satrapies in South Asia (in modern day's Balochistan) include;

• Arachosia satrapy
• Gedrosia satrapy
• Drangiana satrapy

Bibliography

• Errington, Elizabeth; Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh (2007). From Persepolis to the Punjab: Exploring Ancient Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-1165-0.
• Archibald, Zosia; Davies, John K.; Gabrielsen, Vincent (2011), The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780199587926
• Alram, Michael (2016), "The Coinage of the Persian Empire", in William E. Metcalf (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, Oxford University Press, pp. 61–, ISBN 9780199372188
• Boardman, John (1998), "Reflections on the Origins of Indian Stone Architecture", Bulletin of the Asia Institute, pp. 15–19, 1998, New Series, Vol. 12, (Alexander's Legacy in the East: Studies in Honor of Paul Bernard), p. 13-22, JSTOR
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (2000), "Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest)", Indologica Taurinensia, 25, International Association of Sanskrit Studies
• Bopearachchi, Osmund (2017), "Achaemenids and Mauryans: Emergence of Coins and Plastic Arts in India", in Alka Patel; Touraj Daryaee (eds.), India and Iran in the Longue Durée, UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies, pp. 15–48
• Bopearachchi, Osmund; Cribb, Joe (1992), "Coins illustrating the History of the Crossroads of Asia", in Errington, Elizabeth; Cribb, Joe; Claringbull, Maggie (eds.), The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan, Ancient India and Iran Trust, pp. 56–59, ISBN 978-0-9518399-1-1
• Cribb, Joe (1983), "Investigating the introduction of coinage in India - A review of recent research", Journal of the Numismatic Society of India: 80–101
• Dandamaev, M. A. (1989), A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-09172-6
• Eggermont, Pierre Herman Leonard (1975), Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia, Peeters Publishers, ISBN 978-90-6186-037-2
• Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
• Magee, Peter; Petrie, Cameron; Knox, Richard; Khan, Farid; Thomas, Ken (2005), "The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan", American Journal of Archaeology, 109 (4): 711–741, doi:10.3764/aja.109.4.711, S2CID 54089753
• Mitchiner, Michael (1978), The Ancient & Classical World, 600 B.C.-A.D. 650, Hawkins Publications; distributed by B. A. Seaby, ISBN 9780904173161
• Neelis, Jason (2010), Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-18159-5
• Olmstead, A. T. (1948), History of the Persian Empire, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-62777-9
• Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 9788122411980.

List of Pakistani monarchs

The Pakistani monarchs were the rulers of Pakistan or the Greater Indus region throughout its Ancient, Medieval, Early Modern and Modern periods. The earliest known monarchs are from the Ror dynasty (c. 450 BCE–489 CE) of Sindh with uncertain and contested historicity, followed by the Euthydemid dynasty (c. 230 BCE–10 CE) of the Indo-Greeks. Pakistan is historically important as a central area for many empires and kingdoms. Recognized as one of the oldest continuously inhabited lands in the world, Pakistan is considered a diverse cradle of civilizations. The Harappan civilization, one of the world’s earliest, had a complex society, but there is limited evidence about centralized rulers or governance. Three main theories about Harappan governance are: a unified state covering all communities, more than one rulers for major urban centers like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, or a society without where everyone had equal status.

Located at the crossroads of Asia, Pakistan has been ruled by various dynasties during different periods and in different regions. In ancient times, Pakistani monarchs included the Ror (c. 450 BCE–489 CE), Indo-Greek (c. 230 BCE–10 CE), Indo-Scythian (c. 90 BCE–10 CE), Indo-Parthian (c. 25 BCE–240 CE), Mauryan (c. 322–185 BCE), and Kushan (c. 30–375 CE) rulers. The medieval period saw the rise of powerful dynasties such as the Ghaznavids (c. 971–1186 CE) and Ghurids (c. 1170–1215 CE), which played key roles in spreading Islam and forming Islamic states. The Delhi Sultanate (c. 1206–1526 CE), including the Khalji (c. 1290–1320 CE) and Tughlaq (c. 1320–1413 CE) dynasties, greatly influenced the region’s political landscape. The Mughal Empire later unified much of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, bringing significant cultural and administrative advancements. After the Mughal decline, regional monarchies and princely states, such as the Khanate of Kalat (c. 1666–1955 CE), the Katoor dynasty (c. 1340–1969 CE), the Ayasho dynasty (c. 874–1974 CE), the Abbasi Dynasty (c. 1748–1955 CE), the Talpur dynasty (c. 1783–1955) and the states of Nagar (c. 1354–1974 CE), Swat (c. 1000–1969 CE), Dir (c. 1540–1969 CE) and others, continued to rule the region even after Pakistan's independence in 1947.

The last monarch of unified Pakistan, Elizabeth II. The Queen's coronation gown was embroidered with the three emblems of Pakistan: wheat, in oat-shaped diamante and fronds of golden crystal; cotton, made in silver with leaves of green silk; and jute, embroidered in green silk and golden thread.

In the early modern period, the Sikh Empire (c. 1799–1849 CE) ruled the Punjab region of Pakistan. The British Raj (c. 1858–1947 CE) included the Princely states in its colonial framework, with the monarchy lasting until the formal abolition of the British crown in Pakistan in 1956. The last monarch to reign unified Pakistan was Queen Elizabeth II until 23 March 1956.

For the purposes of the list, Pakistani monarchs are the monarchs of the empires and kingdoms that were centred in Pakistan or the Greater Indus region, the list may not include monarchs who ruled Pakistan when it was part of an larger empire centred outside of the Greater Indus region.

Royal titles and ranks

The Golden throne of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh empire, from Lahore, Pakistan.

Pakistan has a rich history that spans thousands of years and includes numerous tribes, kingdoms, empires, cultures, languages, and religions. This diverse history has led to a variety of royal titles and aristocratic ranks, each with different meanings and uses depending on the region and culture. Monarchism has a long tradition in Pakistan and continued even after the country's independence, until 1974 when the last princely states joined Pakistan. Some of these royal titles are still used by descendants in modern Pakistan:

• Padshah/Badshah: "Padshah" (بادشاہ) means "master king" and was used by many important rulers in Pakistan and Persia. It indicates high status and power, similar to the European title of Emperor. It can also be spelled "Padishah," "Padeshah," or "Badshah."
• Maharaja: "Maharaja" (مہاراجہ) means "great king" or "great prince." It ranks below Padshah but above Raja. The term comes from the Sanskrit words "mahat" (great) and "rajan" (king). Notable Maharaja include Maharaja Ranjit Singh, founder and the ruler of the Sikh Empire in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

• Nawab: The title "Nawab" (نواب) was used for rulers below Emperors or Padshahs. It was often given to Muslim rulers in the Mughal Empire who governed their own regions but were loyal to the Mughal Emperor. During British rule, the title was given to people of importance or merit. The female equivalent is "Nawab Begum" or "Begum." Children of a Nawab are called Nawabzada (sons) and Nawabzadi (daughters).
• Raja: A "Raja" (راجہ) is a ruler or king of a princely state. Sometimes, the title indicates noble status without real power. The term comes from "rājan," which means ruler. The wife of a Raja is called "Rani," and their children are called Rajkumar (sons) or Rajkumari (daughters). The area ruled by a Raja may be called a "Raj".
• Thakur: "Thakur" (ٹھاڪر) is an ancient royal title used mainly in Sindh and parts of Punjab. It comes from the Sanskrit word "thākura," meaning idol, god, or lord. In the past, it was similar to the European title of Duke or Prince. The wife of a Thakur is called "Thakurani," and their children are called Kumar (sons) or Kumari (daughters). The area ruled by a Thakur is known as a "Thikana."

  

  George Ali Murad Khan, the last monarch of the Talpur dynasty, sitting on throne, July 1947.

• Mehtar: "Mehtar" or "Mitaar" (مطار) in Khowar, is the title of the king in the Chitral region of northwestern Pakistan, which was a independent kingdom until ruled by the Katoor dynasty until 1969.

• Tham: "Tham" meaning king in the Burushaski language is the title used for the rulers of the states of Hunza and Nagar in northern Pakistan. The Queen is titled "Ghenish".
• Gyalpo: "Gyalpo" (རྒྱལ་པོ་) means "king" in the Tibetic languages. It is used for rulers in the Baltistan region of Pakistan. It also refers to the Four Heavenly Kings in Tibetan mythology and various spirits in both Buddhist and Bon traditions. This title was used by the Makpon, Yabgo and Amacha rulers of northeastern Pakistan.
• Basileus: "Basileus" (βασιλεύς) is a Greek term meaning "king" or "emperor." It was used by early Indo-Greek rulers in Hellenistic Pakistan. The related term "basileia" refers to "sovereignty" or "kingdom." The feminine forms are "basileia" (queen) and "basilissa" (empress).
• Shehenshah: "Shehenshah" (شہنشاہ) meaning "King of Kings" was a title was used by rulers of the Kushan and Mughal empires to show their high status and power.

Euthydemid dynasty of Pakistan

Name	Portrait	Birth	Reign length	Death	Purported life details
Demetrius I Δημήτριος Ἀνίκητος (Demetrius the unconquered)		c. 222 BC	c. 200 – c. 180 BC	c. 167 BC	Expanded into northern Pakistan, establishing early Hellenistic influence and the Indo-Greek kingdom in the region of Gandhara.
Agathocles I Dicaeus Ἀγαθοκλῆς Δικαῖος (Agathocles the just)			Between c. 190 – c. 180 BC		Ruler known for his efforts to consolidate the Indo-Greek control in northern Pakistan, particularly the region of Gandhara.
Pantaleon Πανταλέων			Between c. 190 – c. 180 BC	c. 180 BCE	He was a younger contemporary or successor of king Demetrius I, and is sometimes believed to have been his brother and/or subking.
Antimachus I Ἀντίμαχος Α΄ ὁ Θεός (Antimachus the God)			c. 171 – c. 160 BCE		On his coinage, Antimachus called himself Theos, "The God", a first in the Hellenistic world. This indicates that Antimachus I might have been instrumental in creating a royal state cult.
Apollodotus I Ἀπολλόδοτος Α΄ ὁ Σωτήρ (Apollodotus the Savior)			c. 180 – c. 160 BC or between c. 174 – c. 165 BC	c. 163 – c. 162 BC	Apollodotus I ruled the western and southern parts of the Indo-Greek kingdom, from Taxila in the Punjab region to the areas of Sindh.
Demetrius II Δημήτριος			c. 175 – c. 170 BC or c. 140 BC		An Indo-Greek king who ruled briefly during the 2nd century BC. Little is known about him and there are different views about how to date him. Earlier authors such as Tarn and Narain saw him as a son and sub-king of Demetrius I, but this view has now been abandoned.
Antimachus II Ἀντίμαχος Β΄ ὁ Νικηφόρος (Antimachus the Victorious)			c. 174 – c. 165 BCE		Antimachus II Ruled a vast territory from the Hindu-Kush to the Punjab around 170 BCE. He was almost certainly the eponymous son of Antimachus I, who is known from a unique preserved tax receipt.
Eucratides I Εὐκρατίδης (Eucratides the Great)		c. 205 BC	c. 171 – c. 145 BC	c. 145 BC	Eucratides I was one of the most important Indo-Greek kings. He conquered large parts of northern Pakistan by overthrowing the Euthydemid dynasty and minted a vast and prestigious coinage, suggesting a rule of considerable importance and prosperity.
Menander I Μένανδρος Σωτήρ (Menander the Saviour)		c. 180 BC	c. 165/155 – c. 130 BC	c. 130 BC
Zoilus I Ζωΐλος Δίκαιος (Zoilus the just)			c. 130 – c. 120 BCE

Ror dynasty

The Ror dynasty (روهڙا راڄ‎) was a prominent ruling dynasty in the region of Sindh, Pakistan, with its origins traced back to the early historical period. It was a Sindhi-Buddhist dynasty founded by Dhaj, also known as Ror Kumar in around 450 BC, the dynasty played a significant role in the historical and cultureal development of Sindh. The Ror dynasty established its capital in Rori, which is now modern-day Rohri and Sukkur. This dynasty was known for its influence over the region and its succession of 42 kings, who governed until Raja Dadror, who was poisoned by his head priest (Dewaji), in 620 AD. The rulers of Ror dynasty are one of the earliest known monarchs of Pakistan. The following table lists the chronology of the Ror monarchs from its inception until the end of its reign in 489 AD.

Rori, also known as Roruka, was the capital of the Ror dynasty. It was previously also the capital of the Sauvira Kingdom. Roruka is mentioned as an important trading center in early Buddhist literature. Buddhist Jataka stories talk about exchanges of gifts between King Rudrayan of Roruka and King Bimbisara of Magadha. Divyavadana, the Buddhist chronicle has said that Ror historically competed with Pataliputra in terms of political influence. The scholar T.W. Rhys Davids has mentioned Roruka as one of the most important cities of the subcontinent in the 7th century BCE.

Shortly after the reign of Rudrayan, in the times of his son Shikhandi, Roruka got wiped out in a major sand storm. This event is recorded in both Buddhist (Bhallatiya Jataka) and Jain annals. It was then that the legendary Dhaj (Rai Diyach in Sindhi folklore) built Rori Shankar, Rohri and Sukkur in Pakistan in the year 450 BC.

Ror Dynasty (450 BC – 489 AD)

Monarch	Sindhi
Dhaj (Ror Kumar)	(ڌج (رور ڪمار
Kunak	ڪنڪ
Rurak	رورڪ
Harak	هارڪ
Devanik	ڏيوانڪ
Ahinak	احينڪ
Paripat	پاريپٽ
Bal Shah	بال شاهه
Vijay Bhan	وجيڀن
Khangar	خانگر
Brihadrath (Raja Ror)	(برهدرٿ (راجا رور
Har Ansh	هر انش
Brihad-datt	برهدر دت
Ishman	اشمن
Sridhar	شريدھر
Mohri	موهري
Prasann Ket	پرسن ڪيٽ
Amirvan	اميرون
Mahasen	ماحسن
Brihad-dhaul	برهدر ڌول
Harikeert	هرڪيئرٽ
Som	سوم
Mitravan	مترون
Pushyapata	پوشي پٽا
Sudaav	سوداو
Bideerakh	بيدرک
Nahakman	ناحڪمن
Mangalmitra	منگلميترا
Surat	سورٽ
Pushkar Ket	پوشڪر ڪيٽ
Antar Ket	انتڙ ڪيٽ
Sutjaya	ستجيا
Brihad-dhwaj	برهدر ڌواج
Bahuk	باهڪ
Kampjayi	ڪمپجئي
Kagnish	ڪگنيش
Kapish	ڪپش
Sumantra	سومنتر
Ling-laav	لنگ لاو
Manasjit	مانس جيت
Sunder Ket	سندر ڪيٽ
Dadror	دادرور

Indo-Greek monarchs

The story of the Trojan horse was depicted in the art of Gandhara. (British Museum).

Today 36 Indo-Greek kings are known. Several of them are also recorded in Western and Indian historical sources, but the majority are known through numismatic evidence only. The exact chronology and sequencing of their rule is still a matter of scholarly inquiry, with adjustments regular being made with new analysis and coin finds (overstrikes of one king over another's coins being the most critical element in establishing chronological sequences).

There is an important evolution of coin shape (round to square) and material (from gold to silver to brass) across the territories and the periods, and from Greek type to Indian type over a period of nearly 3 centuries. Also, the quality of coinage illustration decreases down to the 1st century AD. Coinage evolution is an important point of Indo-Greek history, and actually one of the most important since most of these kings are only known by their coins, and their chronology is mainly established by the evolution of the coin types.

The system used here is adapted from Osmund Bopearachchi, supplemented by the views of R C Senior and occasionally other authorities.

Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings, their coins, territories and chronology Based on Bopearachchi (1991)
	Greco-Bactrian kings		Indo-Greek kings
Territories/ dates	West Bactria	East Bactria	Paropamisade	Arachosia	Gandhara	Western Punjab	Eastern Punjab	Mathura
326–325 BC	Campaigns of Alexander the Great in India
312 BC	Creation of the Seleucid Empire
305 BC	Seleucid Empire after Mauryan war
280 BC	Foundation of Ai-Khanoum
255–239 BC	Independence of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom Diodotus I
239–223 BC	Diodotus II
230–200 BC	Euthydemus I
200–190 BC	Demetrius I
190–185 BC	Euthydemus IIFile:EuthydemusIICoin.jpg
190–180 BC	Agathocles			Pantaleon
185–170 BC	Antimachus I
180–160 BC			Apollodotus I
175–170 BC	Demetrius II
160–155 BC			Antimachus II
170–145 BC	Eucratides
155–130 BC	Yuezhi occupation, loss of Ai-Khanoum	Eucratides II Plato Heliocles I	Menander I
130–120 BC	Yuezhi occupation		Zoilos IFile:ZoilosI-525.jpg		Agathokleia			Yavanarajya inscription
120–110 BC			LysiasFile:Lysias-150.jpg		Strato I
110–100 BC			Antialcidas		Heliokles II
100 BC			Polyxenos		Demetrius IIIFile:Demetrius Aniketou.jpg
100–95 BC			Philoxenus
95–90 BC			Diomedes	Amyntas		Epander
90 BC			TheophilosFile:Theophilos-634.jpg	Peukolaos		Thraso
90–85 BC			Nicias	Menander II		Artemidoros
90–70 BC			Hermaeus	Archebius
			Yuezhi occupation		Maues (Indo-Scythian)
75–70 BC					Telephos	Apollodotus II
65–55 BC						Hippostratos	Dionysios
55–35 BC						Azes I (Indo-Scythian)	Zoilos II
55–35 BC							Apollophanes
25 BC – AD 10							Strato II and Strato III
							Zoilos III/ Bhadayasa
							Rajuvula (Indo-Scythian)

Indo-Scythian dynasties and rulers

Satraps dynasty of Gandhara (c. 85 BCE – 50 CE)

This branch of Indo-Scythian ruled over regions of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Eastern Afghanistan and Gandhara region.

List of rulers–

• Maues, (c. 85–60 BCE)
• Vonones, (c. 75–65 BCE)
• Spalahores, (c. 75–65 BCE), brother of King Vonones and probably the later King Spalirises
• Spalagadames, (c. 60–57 BCE), son of Spalahores
• Spalirises (c. 57–47 BCE), brother of King Vonones
• Azes I (c. 47–25 BCE), descended from Maues
• Azilises, (c. 25–20 BCE)
• Zeionises, (c. 10 BCE–10 CE)
• Kharahostes, (c. 10 BCE–10 CE)
• Hajatria (c. until 40/50 CE)

Northern Satraps dynasty (c. 60 BCE – 130 CE)

See the main article: Northern Satraps

Territory of Northern Satraps

List of rulers–

Ruler	Image	Title	Approx. dates	Mentions
Hagamasha		Satrap	1st century BCE	In the archaeological excavations of Sonkh, near Mathura, the earliest coins of the Kshatrapa levels were those of Hagamasha.
Hagana		Satrap	1st century BCE
Rajuvula		Great Satrap	early 1st century BCE
Bhadayasa		Satrap	1st century CE	Possible successor of Rajuvula in Eastern Punjab
Sodasa		Satrap	1st century CE	Son of Rajuvula in Mathura
Kharapallana	Ksatrapena Vanasparena Kharapallanena	Great Satrap	c. CE 130	Great Satrap for Kushan ruler Kanishka I
Vanaspara	Ksatrapena Vanasparena Kharapallanena	Satrap	c. CE 130	Satrap for Kushan ruler Kanishka I

Apracha dynasty (c. 15 BCE – 50 CE)

See the main article: Apracharajas

Territory of Apracharajas

Family tree–

Apracharajas
Vijayamitra (1) r. c. 1st Century Indravasu (2) r. c. 1st Century Vispavarma (3) r. c. 1st Century Indravarma (4) r. c. 1st Century Aspavarma (5) r. c. 1st Century Child of Indravarma Sasa (6) r. c. 1st Century

List of rulers–

Ruler	Image	Filiation	Approx. dates	Mentions
Vijayamitra	Apracharajas Vijayamitra		12 /15 BCE - 15 CE	Queen: Rukhana
Indravasu		Son of Vijayamitra	c. 20 CE	Queen: Vasumitra
Vispavarma or Visnuvarma		Son of Indravasu		Queen: Śiśirena
Iṃdravarmo		Son of Vispavarma		Queen: Utara
Aspo or Aspavarmo	Apracharajas. Aspavarama. Circa AD 20-46	Son of Indravarma	15 - 45 CE
Sasan				Contemporary of Kujula Kadphises and Mujatria.

Western Satraps dynasty (c. 50 BCE – 415 CE)

See the main article: Western Satraps

Territory of Western Satraps

Family tree–

Genealogical table of the Western Satraps

Kshaharata dynasty (c. 1st century BCE to 1st century CE)

This branch of Indo-Scythian ruled over regions of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and beyond.

List of rulers–

• Liaka Kusuluka, satrap of Chuksa
• Kusulaka Patika, satrap of Chuksa and son of Liaka Kusulaka
• Yapirajaya
• Hospises
• Higaraka
• Abhiraka (Aubhirakes)

Kardamaka (Bhadramukhas) dynasty

List of rulers–

• Abhiraka (Aubhirakes)
• Bhumaka
• Nahapana (c. r. between 24 and 78 CE)

(main founder of the Western Satraps)

• Viceroy Ushavadata

• Chastana (78–130) , son of Ysāmotika
• Jayadaman, son of Chastana
• Rudradaman I (130–150) , son of Jayadaman
• Damajadasri I (170–175)
• Jivadaman (178-181, d. 199)
• Rudrasimha I (180–188, d. 197)
• Rudrasimha I (restored) (191–197)
• Satyadaman (197-198)
• Jivadaman (restored) (197–199)
• Rudrasena I (200–222)
• Prthivisena (222)
• Samghadaman (222–223)
• Damasena (223–232)
• Damajadasri II (232–239) with
• Viradaman (234–238)
• Isvaradatta (236–239)
• Yasodaman I (239)
• Vijayasena (239–250)
• Damajadasri III (251–255)
• Rudrasena II (255–277)
• Visvasimha (277–282)
• Bhartrdaman (282–295)
• Visvasena (293–304)

Rudrasimha II dynasty (c. 304 – 415 CE)

List of rulers–

• Rudrasimha II (304–348) , son of Lord (Svami) Jivadaman, with

• Yasodaman II (317–332)
• Rudradaman II (332–348) No coins known

• (Sridharavarman (339-368) No coins known
• Rudrasena III (348–380)
• Simhasena (380–384/5)
• Rudrasena IV (382–388)
• Rudrasimha III (388–415)

Minor local rulers

• Bhadayasa
• Mamvadi
• Arsakes

Indo-Parthian rulers

Coins of the Indo-Parthian king Abdagases, in which his clothing is clearly apparent. He wears baggy trousers, rather typical of Parthian clothing.

Coins of the Indo-Parthian king Abdagases, in which his clothing is clearly apparent. He wears baggy trousers and a crossover jacket.

• Gondophares I (c. 19 – 46) Coin
• Gondophares II Sarpedones (first years AD – c. 20 AD)Coin
• Abdagases I (first years AD – mid-1st century AD) Coin
• Gondophares III Gudana, previously Orthagnes (c. 20 AD – 30 AD)
• Gondophares IV Sases, (mid-1st century AD)
• Ubouzanes, (late-1st century AD)
• Pacores (late 1st century AD) Coin

Kushan rulers

One of the most recent list of rulers with dates is as follows:

• Heraios (c. 1 – 30), first king to call himself "Kushan" on his coinage

"Great Kushans";

• Kujula Kadphises (c. 50 – c. 90)
• Vima Takto (c. 90 – c. 113), alias Soter Megas or "Great Saviour."
• Vima Kadphises (c. 113 – c. 127) First great Kushan Emperor
• Kanishka the Great (127 – c. 151)
• Huvishka (c. 151 – c. 190)
• Vasudeva I (c. 190 – c. 230) Last great Kushan Emperor
• Kanishka II (c. 230 – 247)
• Vashishka (c. 247 – 267)

"Little Kushans";

• Kanishka III (c. 267 – 270)
• Vasudeva II (c. 270 – 300)
• Mahi (c. 300 – 305)
• Shaka (c. 305 – 335)
• Kipunada (c. 335 – 350)

Main Kushano-Sassanid rulers

The following Kushanshahs were:

• Ardashir I Kushanshah (230–245)
• Peroz I Kushanshah (245–275)
• Hormizd I Kushanshah (275–300)
• Hormizd II Kushanshah (300–303)
• Peroz II Kushanshah (303–330)
• Varahran Kushanshah (330–365)

History of Pakistan

Simplified (VOA Special English)

The history of Pakistan goes back thousands of years in a large area called the Greater Indus region. Modern humans first came to Pakistan between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Stone tools that are about 2.1 million years old, used by early human ancestors, have been found in the Soan Valley of Pakistan. The oldest known human bones in Pakistan are from 5000 BCE to 3000 BCE. People started living in one place in Pakistan around 7000 BCE. This led to the creation of Mehrgarh, one of the oldest cities in human history. By 4500 BCE, settled life had spread and slowly turned into the Indus Valley Civilization, which thrived between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE along the Indus River. Ancient Pakistan is one of the six places where human civilization began. In the early second millennium BCE, long droughts caused the people of the Indus Valley to leave large cities and move to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes came into the Punjab region from Central Asia in several groups, starting the Vedic period. The Vedic period in Pakistan, from about 1500 to 500 BCE, is known for the creation of many hymns called Vedas in the Punjab region, also known as Sapta-Sindhu. The Indo-Aryans, who were herders and travelers, spread from Punjab, Pakistan into the Gangetic plains of India. At the same time, the Gandhara civilization grew in northwestern Pakistan. It was located at the crossroads of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting trade routes and taking in cultural ideas from different civilizations. Around 600 BCE, a new culture that connected different regions began to appear. Small groups, known as Janapadas, joined to form larger states called Mahajanapadas. This led to a second period of urban growth in South Asia, along with new religious movements and ideas. During this time, Jainism and Buddhism began and spread into the Gandhara region of Pakistan. The Mahayana and Vajrayana forms of Buddhism developed here. Buddhist monks from Gandhara helped spread Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia along the Silk Road. The Vedic religion mixed with older religious traditions in the region, leading to the development of modern Hinduism.

After the Achaemenid Empire conquered the Indus Valley, local governors, known as satraps, were set up in Ancient Pakistan. The region was divided into five provinces: Hindush, Sattagydia, Arachosia, Gedrosia, and Gandara. Around 300 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered much of the Indus Valley, marking the start of the Hellenic period in Pakistan. Later, Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Nanda Empire and started the Mauryan Empire in Magadha. The Mauryan king Ashoka, who was once the governor of Gandhara, is well-known for adopting Buddhism and trying to spread nonviolence and peace throughout his empire. The Mauryan Empire fell in 185 BCE when the emperor Brihadratha was killed by his general, Pushyamitra Shunga. After this, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom expanded into northwest Pakistan and established the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Over time, different parts of Pakistan were ruled by many dynasties, including the Mauryans, Kidarites, White Huns, and the Rai from the 4th to the 6th centuries CE. Later, the Indo-Parthians, Indo-Scythians, Kushans, and Indo-Sassanids ruled much of Pakistan. These Pakistani civilizations spread their ways of government, culture, and religion to Central and East Asia, helping Buddhism reach China, Korea, and Japan. The first statues of the Buddha were made in the Gandhara region of northwestern Pakistan. The Mahayana Buddhist texts from Gandhara were brought to China and translated, spreading throughout East Asia. In the early medieval period, mathematics from the region of modern Pakistan had an impact on the development of math and astronomy in the Arab world. This included the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Islamic conquests began to enter the Sindh region of Pakistan as early as the 8th century, starting with the arrival of Muslim armies. Later, Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the region. In 1206, the Delhi Sultanate was founded by Central Asian Turks who later adopted the local culture. The Sultanate ruled a large part of the northern subcontinent in the early 14th century. Different dynasties, including the Tughlaq and Khalji dynasties, controlled the Sultanate. However, the Sultanate began to decline in the late 14th century after the invasions of Timur. During the medieval period, various dynasties ruled different parts of Pakistan. These included the Ghurids, Alchon Huns, Nezak Huns, and the Kalhora dynasty, which ruled over much of Pakistan. In the Sindh region, dynasties like the Habbarids, Soomras, and the Chach ruled. In the northern and northeastern areas, other dynasties such as the Makpon, Katoor, Patola Shahis, and Yabgo held power.

The early modern period started in the 16th century when the Mughal Empire took over most of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. This period saw the start of early industrial development, making the Mughal Empire one of the biggest economies and manufacturing powers in the world. However, the Mughal Empire began to weaken in the early 18th century. This was mainly due to the rise of the Sikhs, the Marathas, and the East India Company, which took control of large areas of the subcontinent. The East India Company acted on behalf of the British government and gradually gained control over vast regions between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries. The way the company ruled led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. After the rebellion, the British Crown took direct control, leading to the period known as the British Raj. After World War I, a movement for independence began across the subcontinent, led by the Indian National Congress and figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Later, the All-India Muslim League called for a separate nation for the Muslim-majority regions in the northwest and east, believing they were different from the rest of South Asia. In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was divided into two independent countries: the Dominion of Pakistan and the Dominion of India. Since then, Pakistan has experienced both periods of democratic civilian rule and military rule. The country has seen times of economic and military growth as well as periods of instability. A significant event during this time was the separation of East Pakistan, which became the new country of Bangladesh.

Complex English (Raw)

The history of Pakistan spans several millennia across a wide geographical area known as the Greater Indus region. Anatomically modern humans first arrived in Pakistan between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Stone tools as old as 2.1 million years old used by the early hominids have been found in the Soan Valley of Pakistan. The earliest known human remains in Pakistan date to 5000 BCE to 3000 BCE. Sedentariness began in Pakistan around 7000 BCE giving rise to some of the oldest urban centres in human history, Mehrgarh; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE around the Indus River. Ancient Pakistan is one of the six cradles of civilizations in the world and one of the earliest civilizational states. Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration and started the Vedic period. Vedic Period in Pakistan (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (Vedas) in the Punjab (Sapta-Sindhu) region. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab region of Pakistan into the Gangetic plains of India. Alongside the Vedic civilization, the Gandhara civilization flourished at the crossroads of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East in northwestern Pakistan, connecting trade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas). Second urbanization took place in South Asia, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism and spread into the Gandhara region of Pakistan. The Mahayana and Vajrayana branches of Buddhism developed here. The Gandharan monks spread Buddhism to Central and East Asia through the Silk route. The Vedic religion synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to modern-Hinduism.

After the Achaemenid conquests of the Indus Valley, local satraps were established in Ancient Pakistan and the region became divided in five satrapies; Hindush, Sattagydia, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Gandara. In around 300 BCE, Alexander the great conquered much of the Indus Valley and this led to the start of the Hellenic period in Pakistan. Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the Mauryan empire in Magadha. Mauryan king Ashoka, initially a governor of Gandhara, is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of Buddhism and his attempts to spread nonviolence and peace across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga. Greco-Bactrian Kingdom expanded into north-west Pakistan and founded the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Various parts of Pakistan were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the Mauryan, Kidarite, White Huns and the Rai in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. Much of Pakistan was later ruled by the Indo-Parthians, Indo-Scythians, Kushans and the Indo-Sassanids. Aspects of these Pakistani civilisations, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Central and East Asia, which led to the spread of Buddhism in China, Korea and Japan. The first statues of the Buddha in human form were made in the Gandhara region of northwestern Pakistan and the Gandharan Mahayana sutras were brought and translated in China and rest of East Asia. In the early medieval period, mathematics from the region of modern-Pakistan influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into Sindh region of Pakistan as early as the 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 by Central Asian Turks who later adopted to the local culture. They ruled a major part of the northern subcontinent in the early 14th century. It was ruled by multiple dynasties, Including the Tughlaq Dynasty and Khalji dynasty, but declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of Timur. Medieval Pakistan was ruled by various dynasties, including the Ghurids, Alchon Huns, Nezak Huns and Kalhora that ruled much of Pakistan, Habbarids, Soomra, Chach in Sindh and Makpon, Katoor, Patola Shahis, and Yabgo in the north and northeast.

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Sikhs, Marathas, and East India company, who took control of extensive regions of the subcontinent. The East India Company, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government, gradually acquired control of huge areas between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The subcontinent was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separatation of northwestern and eastern muslim majority-regions, who they believed were a distinct nation compared tthe rest of South Asia. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of Pakistan and Dominion of India, each gaining its independence. Since then, the country has experienced both civilian-democratic and military rule, resulting in periods of significant economic and military growth as well as those of instability; significant during the latter, was the secession of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh.

Abbasi dynasty

The Abbasid Dynasty of Bahawalpur traces its descent to the sixth Abbasid Caliph of Egypt who In the second half of the 14th century migrated to Sindh.

Located on the other side of the Radcliffe Line from Bikaner and Jaisalmer, Bahawalpur was a seventeen-gun-salute state. It joined the ranks of the princely states under British paramountcy in 1833 after seeking the East India Company's protection against Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of Punjab. Its sovereign in 1947 was Nawab Sadiq Muhammad Khan V, sixtieth in a line of descent that traced its origins to Al Abbas Ibn Abdul al Muttalib, an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad, through the Abbasid caliphs of Cairo and Baghdad. Bahawalpur was founded by Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan II in 1802 after the fall of the Durrani dynasty of Afghanistan that had occupied the region. Once stretching as far north as the Sutlej and Indus rivers, Bahawalpur had strategic importance and had been used as a base by the British for their campaigns in Baluchistan, Sind and Afghanistan.

Credit for turning a feudal backwater into a modern state with grand public buildings, canals, railways, and an efficient administration goes to Sadiq Muhammad Khan IV, who ascended the gaddi at the age of four and was invested with full powers at the age of eighteen in 1879. Unlike his traditionally dressed father, Sadiq Muhammad V belonged to the 'breeches and boots and flannels for cricket' school of ruler and prided himself on his European tastes, though he was also fanatical about his ancestry and wore a fez to emphasize his Abbasid roots.

List of Pakistani deities

Pakistani deities refers to the many gods and goddesses worshipped in different religions that started in the area of Pakistan or the Greater Indus region. This includes the many gods from ancient civilizations, local beliefs, and modern religions that have shaped the spiritual and cultural life of the area. The land of Pakistan is important because it is the starting place of several major religions. The Vedic religion, which helped start Hinduism, began in this area, and its gods have had a lasting effect on the spiritual world. Also, the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world's first city cultures, had early gods (Proto-deities) shown by discoveries made by archaeologists.

The historic regions of Gandhara and Oddiyana in northern Pakistan played a big part in the development and spread of Mahayana Buddhism to Central and East Asia. During this time, the first human images of Buddha and a unigue set Buddhist gods appeared. The Vajrayana branch of Buddhism also started in this area, with Padmasambhava, an important figure in Vajrayana, thought to have come from the Oddiyana area of ancient Pakistan. The land of Pakistan is also important in Zoroastrianism, seen as part of the "Good Lands" (created by Ahura Mazda himself) in Zoroastrian cosmology.

The Hellenic period (300 BC–10 CE) brought Greek influence to Pakistan, mixing Greek and local traditions and creating syncretic (mixed) gods. This mix shows the region's historical role as a meeting place of cultures. In the early modern period, Sikhism, a monotheistic religion started in the Punjab region of Pakistan, introducing a distinct set of revered figures. The Pagan Kalash community, living in the northern parts of Pakistan, has its own gods and spiritual practices.

The following list shows the main gods and goddesses from different religions that started in Pakistan, including syncretic (mixed) gods. The list may not include gods of religions that are influential in the country but started elsewhere.

Early Gods of the Indus Civilization

Harappan Proto-Deities

This seal from Mohenjo-Daro shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.

Indus Valley Civilization seal, with man fighting two tigers (2500-1500 BCE).

Female figure, possibly a fertility goddess from the Indus Valley, Harappan Phase, c. 2500-1900 BC.

Man with horns, hooves and tail, fighting a beast. He has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu. Indus Valley civilization seal.

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) of Ancient Pakistan gives interesting clues about early religious beliefs through its archaeological findings. While there is little direct evidence of specific gods, several key things suggest the presence of early forms of gods (Proto-Deities) and spiritual ideas.

1. Mother Goddess Figurines: Clay figurines, often called "Mother Goddesses," are common in Indus Valley archaeological sites. Historians think these figurines, with clear female features, likely focus on fertility and motherhood. Their wide use suggests that fertility and farming success were important to the spiritual life of the Indus Valley people.

2. Master of Animals: A important artifact is a seal showing a seated figure surrounded by animals. This has been understood in different ways. Some think it might connect to later gods, but this figure could represent early forms of spiritual or symbolic links to nature or animals. The image of the figure with animals suggests a link to natural forces or an early form of worship related to animals.

3. Animal Worship: Animals often appear in Indus Valley seals and sculptures, showing a form of animal worship. The humped bull, for example, is a key symbol, possibly representing strength, fertility, or farming success. Other animals shown include elephants, the Indus unicorn, and rhinoceroses, suggesting that these animals had special or spiritual meanings. The regular depiction of animals in religious contexts shows that animals were thought to have sacred or spiritual qualities.

Hellenic period

See the main article: Hellenic Pakistan

From 300 BCE to 10 AD, the Hellenic period in ancient Pakistan saw a strong mix of Greek and South Asian cultures. After Alexander the Great’s conquest, Greek influence spread through cities built by the Greeks in Pakistan, like Alexandria on the Indus, Sirkap, Bajaur, Peshawar, Charsadda and Taxila. The Seleucid, Kushan, Greco-Bactrian, and Indo-Greek kingdoms continued this cultural blend, mixing Greek customs with local traditions in art, architecture, and religion. This mix led to the creation of Gandharan art, which combined Greek and Buddhist styles.

Kushan and Indo-Greek deities

The Kushan and Indo-Greek gods are very varied, as shown by their coins made of gold, silver, and copper. These coins feature more than thirty different gods from Iranian, Greek, and South Asian beliefs. Kushan coins show Kushan kings, Buddha, and gods from Indo-Aryan and Iranian beliefs. Early coins also have Greek gods with Greek names. These empires and kingdoms were centred around the Gandhara region in Ancient Pakistan, which played a big role in the syncretism (mixing) of different beliefs and deities (gods). Following is a list of the Kushan or Hellenistic deities of Pakistan:

The Iranian entities depicted on coinage include:

• Ardoxsho (Αρδοχþο): Ashi Vanghuhi
• Ashaeixsho (Aþαειχþo, "Best righteousness"): Asha Vahishta
• Athsho (Αθþο, "The Royal fire"): Atar
• Pharro (Φαρρο, "Royal splendour"): Khwarenah
• Lrooaspa (Λροοασπο): Drvaspa
• Manaobago (Μαναοβαγο): Vohu Manah
• Mao (Μαο, the Lunar deity): Mah
• Mithro and variants (Μιθρο, Μιιρο, Μιορο, Μιυρο): Mithra
• Mozdooano (Μοζδοοανο, "Mazda the victorious?"): Mazda *vana
• Nana (Νανα, Ναναια, Ναναϸαο): variations of pan-Asiatic Nana, Sogdian Nny, Anahita
• Oado (Οαδο): Vata
• Oaxsho (Oαxþo): "Oxus"
• Ooromozdo (Οορομοζδο): Ahura Mazda
• Ořlagno (Οραλαγνο): Verethragna, the Iranian god of war
• Rishti (Ριϸτι, "Uprightness"): Arshtat
• Shaoreoro (Ϸαορηορο, "Best royal power", Archetypal ruler): Khshathra Vairya
• Tiero (Τιερο): Tir

Representation of entities from Greek mythology and Hellenistic syncretism are:

Hercules and the Nemean lion wrestling, from Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st century.

• Zaoou (Ζαοου): Zeus
• Ēlios (Ηλιος): Helios
• Ēphaēstos (Ηφαηστος): Hephaistos
• Oa nēndo (Οα νηνδο): Nike
• Salēnē (Ϲαληνη): Selene
• Anēmos (Ανημος): Anemos
• Diónysus (Διόνυσος): Dionysos
• Ērakilo (Ηρακιλο): Heracles
• Sarapo (Ϲαραπο): the Greco-Egyptian god Sarapis

The South asian entities represented on coinage include:

• Boddo (Βοδδο): the Buddha
• Shakamano Boddho (Ϸακαμανο Βοδδο): Shakyamuni Buddha
• Metrago Boddo (Μετραγο Βοδδο): the bodhisattava Maitreya
• Maaseno (Μαασηνο): Mahāsena
• Skando-Komaro (Σκανδο-kομαρο): Skanda-Kumara
• Bizago: Viśākha
• Ommo: Umā, the consort of Siva.
• Oesho (Οηϸο): long considered to represent Shiva, but also identified as Avestan Vayu.

• Deities on Kushan coinage and seals
• 
  Mahasena on a coin of Huvishka
• 
  Four-faced Oesho
• 
  Rishti or Riom
• 
  Manaobago
• 
  Pharro
• 
  Ardochsho
• 
  Oesho
• 
  Oesho with bull
• 
  Skanda and Visakha
• 
  Carnelian seal representing the "ΑΔϷΟ" (adsho Atar).
• 
  Coin of Kanishka I, with a depiction of the Buddha and legend "Boddo" in Greek script
• 
  Herakles.
• 
  Buddha
• 
  Coin of Vima Kadphises. Deity Oesho on the reverse.

Rigvedic Deities

Rigveda is the oldest of the four sacred Veda texts, composed in an ancient form of Sanskrit in about 1500 BCE, in the Punjab (Sapta-Sindhu) region of Ancient Pakistan. It is also the oldest religious text of Hinduism. It consists of a collection of 1,028 poems grouped into 10 “circles” (mandalas). Following is the list of deities mentioned in the Rigveda:

• Agni (Agni): The fire god, central to Vedic rituals and sacrifices.

  

  Copper sculpture of the Rigvedic deity Indra, the Chief of the Gods, from Nepal.

• Indra (Indra): The king of the gods, god of thunder and rain.
• Varuna (Varuṇa): The god of cosmic order and the waters.
• Mitra (Mitra): The god of friendship and contracts.
• Surya (Sūrya): The sun god.
• Ashvins (Aśvinau): The twin gods of medicine and health.
• Brihaspati (Bṛhaspati): The god of wisdom and eloquence.
• Tvastr (Tvaṣṭṛ): The divine carpenter and craftsman.
• Prajaapati (Prajāpati): The lord of creatures and creation.
• Aditi (Aditi): The mother of the gods and goddess of infinity.
• Dyaus Pitar (Dyauṣ Pitṛ): The sky god, akin to the Greek Zeus.
• Ushas (Uṣas): The goddess of dawn.
• Pusha (Puṣa): The god of prosperity and nourishment.
• Savitri (Sāvitrī): The deity associated with the sun and solar energy.
• Bhaga (Bhāga): The god of fortune and prosperity.
• Dakshina (Dakṣiṇā): The goddess of the South and offerings.
• Aranyani (Araṇyānī): The goddess of the forests and wilderness.
• Chandra (Candra): The moon deity, also known as the god of the night.
• Ishvara (Īśvara): A deity associated with control and lordship.
• Soma (Soma): The god of the sacred drink and the moon.
• Yama (Yama): The god of death and justice.
• Vayu (Vāyu): The god of wind.

  

  Four-armed statue of the goddess Sharada, the kashmiri name for Sarasvati, from Kashmir, c. late 9th century AD.

• Sarasvati (Sarasvatī): The goddess of learning, music, and wisdom.
• Rudra (Rudra): A fierce form of Shiva, associated with storms and hunting.
• Maruts (Māruṭ): The storm deities, often associated with Indra.
• Rbhus (Ṛbhus): The divine artisans, associated with various creative tasks.
• Apris (Aprīs): A lesser-known deity.
• Dadhikra (Dadhikṛ): A deity associated with the dawn.
• Parjanya (Parjanya): The god of rain and thunderstorms.
• Vac (Vāc): A form of the goddess Sarasvati, associated with speech and knowledge.
• Vastospati (Vāstospati): The god of the house and home.
• Vishvakarman (Viśvakarman): The architect of the gods and the divine carpenter.
• Manyu (Mānyu): The god of wrath and fury.
• Chitragupta (Citragupta): A son of Brahma and Sarasvati, associated with recording deeds.
• Manas (Manas): A deity mentioned in Rigveda 10.58.
• Purusha (Purūṣa): The cosmic being, central to the Purusha Sukta hymn.
• Ratri (Rātri): The goddess of night.
• Shachi (Śācī): The goddess of power and wife of Indra. Also called Indrani.
• Vasukra (Vāsukra): A lesser-known deity.
• Atri (Ātri): A sage, often associated with the divine.
• Apam Napat (Āpām Napat): The son of the waters, associated with creation and fertility.
• Kshetrapati (Kṣetrapati): The lord of the field, associated with agriculture.
• Ghṛta (Ghṛta): Associated with the sacred clarified butter used in rituals.
• Nirrti (Nirrti): The goddess of dissolution and chaos.
• Asamati (Asamati): A lesser-known deity.
• Urvasi (Urvaśī): An Apsara, or celestial nymph.
• Pururavas (Purūravas): A mythological king, often associated with Urvasi.
• Vena (Vena): A king mentioned in the Puranas, sometimes associated with the Vedic deities.
• Mayabheda (Māyābheda): A lesser-known deity.
• Tarksya (Tārkṣya): A lesser-known deity.
• Prithvi (Pṛthvī): The goddess of the earth.
• Adityas (Ādityas): A group of deities associated with the sun.
• Sanjna (Saṃjñā): The goddess of clouds and dusk.

• Depiction of Rigvedic deities in art
• 
  Painting of Indra on his elephant mount.
• 
  Painting of Agni riding a ram.
• 
  Varuna on his mount Makara.
• 
  Vayu (dikpala) on his mount, gazelle.
• 
  Painting of the god Surya, 19th century.
• 
  Vishnu with Lakshmi on Garuda, painted in gouache c. 1820.
• 
  Harihara – Combined form of Vishnu and Shiva, c. 1825
• 
  Sarasvati seated on the banks of a river.
• 
  A 19th-century painting of Yama on his Buffalo mount.
• 
  Chandra, the moon god.
• 
  Vishnu seated on a lotus.
• 
  Kamadeva (Kama), the god of desire.
• 
  Yama, the god of death and justice.

Gandharan Deities

Head of Bodhisattva

Head of a bodhisattva from Gandhara, Ancient Pakistan. Around 4th century, terracotta, 85 cm in height, Asian Civilisations Museum.

The historical region of Gandhara in ancient Pakistan is considered "The holy land of Buddhism". Both the Mahayana and Vajrayana branches of Buddhism have their origins in the Gandhara and Oddiyana regions of Pakistan. Many important Buddhist deities are linked to these areas. Gandharan monks were the first to spread Buddhism to Central and East Asia, and many Buddhist traditions in Japan, Korea, and China today trace their roots back to ancient Pakistan. The Gandhāran Buddhist texts are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered (circa 1st century CE). Mahāyāna Pure Land sūtras were brought from the Gandhāra to China as early as AD 147, by the Gandharan monk Lokakṣema who translated the important Mahayana sutras. Following are some major deities and Bodhisattvas associated with the region of Pakistan, including both Mahayana and Vajrayana deities:

Mahayana

• Amitabha Buddha (Amitābha): Amitabha Buddha is the Buddha of Infinite Light, associated with his Western Paradise, Sukhavati. He embodies boundless compassion and wisdom. The origin of Amitabha Buddha is Gandhara, Pakistan.

• Avalokiteshvara (Avalokiteśvara): Avalokiteshvara is the Gandharan Bodhisattva of Compassion, often depicted with many arms and eyes to aid all beings in need. He is one of the most popular Bodhisattvas in the region.

• Manjushri (Mañjuśrī): Manjushri is the Gandharan Bodhisattva of Wisdom, symbolizing the enlightened wisdom of the Buddha. He is commonly shown holding a sword and a book.

• Maitreya (Maitreyā): Maitreya is the Gandharan Bodhisattva of the Future, who is expected to come to earth to renew the Dharma. He is depicted in a relaxed posture, indicating his future role as a Buddha.
  Bodhisattva Maitreya

  

  

  Statue of of Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, from Gandhara, Ancient Pakistan.

• Ksitigarbha (Kṣitigarbha): Ksitigarbha is the Bodhisattva who vows to help beings in hell realms and protect travelers. He is often shown holding a staff and a jewel.

• Tara (Tārā): Tarā is a female Bodhisattva known for her role in guiding and protecting devotees. She is often depicted standing or seated with a serene expression.

• Dharmachakra Buddha (Dharmacakra): Dharmachakra Buddha represents the Buddha’s first sermon and the turning of the wheel of Dharma. This form is associated with the teaching of the Dharma.

• Padmapani (Padmapāṇi): Padmapani, or the “Lotus-Bearer,” is a Gandharan Bodhisattva associated with compassion and wisdom, often depicted holding a lotus flower.

• Vajrapani (Vajrapāṇi): Vajrapani is the Bodhisattva of Power and the Protector of the Buddha. He is depicted holding a vajra (thunderbolt), symbolizing his strength and ability to remove obstacles.

• Buddha Shakyamuni (Śākyamuni): Buddha Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha, is often depicted in various poses representing his enlightenment and teachings.

• Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Avalokiteśvara): Avalokiteshvara, as a Bodhisattva of Compassion, is frequently shown with multiple arms and eyes to assist all beings.

• Naga Deities (Nāga): Nāga deities are serpent-like beings associated with water and fertility, appearing in various forms in Gandharan art.

• Mahakasyapa (Mahākāśyapa): Mahakasyapa was a principal disciple of Buddha Shakyamuni, known for his role in the first Buddhist council. He is depicted as an elder monk with a solemn demeanor.

• Kumarajiva (Kumārajīva): Kumarajiva was a renowned translator and scholar whose work significantly influenced the dissemination of Buddhism in Gandhara.

• Vajrasattva (Vajrasattva): Vajrasattva represents the embodiment of the enlightened mind and the purifying power of the vajra (thunderbolt), often depicted with a vajra and bell.

• Lokeshvara (Lokeśvara): Lokeshvara is a manifestation of Avalokiteshvara, depicted in a regal form with multiple arms and adorned with jewels, symbolizing world protection.

• Prajnaparamita (Prajñāpāramitā): Prajnaparamita personifies the perfection of wisdom, often depicted holding a book or scroll, representing ultimate insight into the nature of reality.
• Hariti (Hārītī): Hariti is both a revered goddess and demon, depending on the Buddhist tradition. She is one of the Twenty-Four Protective Deities of Mahayana Buddhism. The iconography of Hārītī shows similarities to the Greek goddess Tyche and was transmitted to East Asia from Gandhara, Pakistan. She is known as Guǐzǐmǔ(shén) in Chinese and Kishimojin in Japanese.

Hariti statues from Pakistan

Hariti with children (front). 1st century BCE, Gandhara.

Hariti with children (back). 1st century BCE, Gandhara.

Rondel with the Goddess Hariti, 1st century CE.

Standing Hariti (Gandhara).

Vajrayana

• Vajrapani (Vajrapāṇi): Vajrapani is a prominent Vajrayana deity symbolizing the power and protection of the Buddha. He is often depicted wielding a vajra (thunderbolt) and a bell. MET DP297457

• Padmasambhava (Padmasambhava): Padmasambhava, known as Guru Rinpoche, is a central figure in Vajrayana Buddhism. He is credited with bringing Buddhism to Tibet from Pakistan and is often depicted in various forms, including as a tantric deity.
  Padmasambhava

  

  

  Statue of Padmasambhava from Western Tibet.

• Tara (Tārā): Tara is a female Bodhisattva and is also a key figure in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is associated with protection and compassion and is often depicted in multiple forms, including Green Tara and White Tara.

• Avalokiteshvara (Avalokiteśvara): Avalokiteshvara, a Bodhisattva of Compassion, is also a significant figure in Vajrayana, often depicted with multiple arms and eyes, symbolizing his ability to aid all sentient beings.

• Hevajra (Hevajra): Hevajra is a central deity in Vajrayana Tantra, particularly in the Kālacakra and other tantric traditions. He is depicted in a complex form with multiple heads and arms, often surrounded by consorts.

• Yamantaka (Yamāntaka): Yamantaka is a fierce deity known for overcoming death and ignorance. He is depicted with multiple heads and arms, often standing on a corpse or in a fierce posture.

• Vajrasattva (Vajrasattva): Vajrasattva is the embodiment of the enlightened mind and the purifying power of the vajra. He is depicted holding a vajra and bell, representing the purification of negativities.

• Kalachakra (Kālacakra): Kalachakra is a deity associated with the concept of time and cycles. He is central to the Kalachakra Tantra and is often depicted with multiple faces and limbs.

• Jnana Dakini (Jñāna Dākinī): Jnana Dakini is a female deity representing wisdom and knowledge. She is often depicted in a dynamic and protective posture, embodying the feminine aspect of enlightenment.

• Vajravarahi (Vajravārāhī): Vajravārāhī is a fierce, wrathful deity embodying the power of transformation and protection. She is depicted with a pig's head and a variety of symbols representing her power.

• Nairatmya (Nairātmyā): Nairatmya is a female deity representing the absence of self and the wisdom of emptiness. She is depicted in a wrathful form, often holding ritual implements.

• Mahakala (Mahākāla): Mahākāla is a protector deity in Vajrayana, associated with the destruction of obstacles and negativities. He is often depicted in a fearsome form with multiple heads and limbs.

• Kalarupa (Kalarūpa): Kalarupa is a wrathful deity representing the transformation of negative forces into positive energy. He is depicted in a fierce, dynamic posture.

• Samantabhadra (Samantabhadra): Samantabhadra is a primordial Buddha representing the essence of enlightenment. He is often depicted in a serene, meditative posture.

Other

• Akshobya (Akṣobhya): Akshobhya is one of the five Transcendent Buddhas of Esoteric Buddhism. He sits on a tasseled throne supported by three crowned elephants, his traditional mounts. He is venerated in both Mahayana and Vajrayana.
• Dvarapala (Dvārapāla): Dvarapala or the Door Guardian is a non-Buddhist protective deity that were found flanking on doorways of Buddhist monasteries at the Gandharan site of Thareli.

Hindu Deities

5th century statue of the Brahma from Sindh, Pakistan. It is the earliest known metallic image of Brahma, and the only known representative of the school it represents. It has been described as "an immense artistic creation" of its time. National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi.

Hinduism evolved from a blend of Vedic religion and other South Asian religious beliefs in the Greater Indus region (Ancient Pakistan), and later in the Ganges Valley as well. The following are the major Hindu gods associated with Pakistan, the list does not include the Rigvedic deities:

• Karttikeya (Kārttikeya): The god of war and victory, known for his role as the commander of the divine army.
• Brahma (Brahmā): The creator god in the Hindu Trimurti, known for his role in the creation of the universe.

• Jhulelal (Jhulelal): A folk deity revered in Sindh, known as the protector of the Sindhi people and the patron of water and rivers.
• Shiva (Śiva): One of the principal deities of Hinduism, known as the destroyer and transformer within the Trimurti.
• Parvati (Pārvatī): The goddess of love, fertility, and devotion, and the consort of Shiva.
• Ganesh (Gaṇeśa): The elephant-headed god of beginnings, wisdom, and remover of obstacles.
• Durga (Durgā): A fierce and protective goddess associated with strength and the destruction of evil.
• Kali (Kālī): A fierce goddess associated with death, time, and the destruction of evil forces.
• Lakshmi (Lakṣmī): The goddess of wealth, prosperity, and fortune.
• Vishnu (Viṣṇu): One of the principal deities of Hinduism, known as the preserver and protector of the universe.
• Krishna (Kṛṣṇa): An avatar of Vishnu, revered for his role in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita.
• Rama (Rāma): The hero of the Ramayana and a symbol of virtue and dharma.
• Kubera (Kubera): The god of wealth and the keeper of treasures.
• Hanuman (Hanumān): The monkey god and devoted servant of Rama, known for his strength and loyalty.

Kalasha Deities

See the main article: Kalasha religion

Wooden Statues representing the Kalasha ancestors in the Valley of Bumburet, Chitral northwestern Pakistan.

The Kalasha religion is an indigenous religion followed by the Kalash people of Northern Pakistan. It is an ancient polytheistic religion that shares similarities with the Pre-Zoroastrian, Vedic and Hellenic and other Indo-European religious traditions. Following are some major Kalasha deities:

• Dezau (ḍezáw): The supreme creator deity in Kalasha religion, similar to Zeus. Dezau is associated with creation and the formation of all other gods and goddesses. The term "Dezau" is derived from the Indo-European word *dheig'h, meaning 'to form' or 'to create.'
• Dizane (Disane): The great Mother Goddess of the Kalasha people, also known as Disani or Dezalik (The sister of Dezau). She is associated with the hearth, life force, protection of children and women during childbirth, and the wheat crop. The Giché festival is dedicated to her.
• Balumain (Bal’ima’n’in): A deity associated with protection and guidance in Kalasha traditions.
• Sajigor (Sajigor): A deity linked with natural elements and local traditions.
• Krumai (Krumai): A goddess residing on the sacred mountain Tirich Mir, associated with fairies and natural landscapes. She is known for a myth involving her transformation and interaction with other deities.
• Mahandeo (Mahandeo): A deity associated with the sun and solar energy, playing a key role in Kalasha rituals and festivals.
• Saranji (Saranji): A lesser-known deity linked with agricultural fertility and seasonal changes.
• Nirmali (Nirmali): A goddess similar to Lucina from Ancient Rome, responsible for the protection of women and children, particularly during childbirth. She is associated with the roots of the Sacred Tree.
• Jestak (Jes’t’ak): A deity associated with health and well-being in the Kalasha pantheon.
  Temple of Jestak

  

  

  

  The temple of Jestak in the Bamburet valley of, Chitral, Pakistan.
• Munjem Malek (Munjem Malék): A deity with specific cultural and religious significance in Kalasha beliefs.
• Suchi (Suchi): A deity associated with purity and sacredness.
• Warin (warin): A lesser-known deity from the Biriu Valley.
• Varoti (Varōti): A deity linked with local traditions and natural elements.
• Jach (Jach): A lesser-known deity in the Kalasha pantheon with specific regional importance.
• Praba (Braba): A lesser-known clan deity, worshipped only in specific villages of Kalash.

Nuristani Deities

The Nuristani people of northern Pakistan and Afghanistan followed a polytheistic religion, similar to the Kalash, before their converstion to Islam in 1895-96. Following is the list of Pre-Islamic Nuristani deities:

• Mara (Mara): The principal creator deity in Nuristani belief, often associated with creation and cosmic order. Also, known as Imra.
• Mandi (Mandi): Local deities and spirits, collectively known as Mandi or Moni, associated with various aspects of life and nature.
• Wushum (Wushum): A deity associated with fertility and agriculture.
• Shomde (Shomde): A lesser-known deity with regional significance.
• Gish (Gish): A deity linked with natural elements and local traditions.
• Giwish (Giwish): A lesser-known deity in Nuristani beliefs.
• Bagisht (Bagisht): A deity associated with protection and guidance.
• Indr (Indr): A deity often associated with rain and storms.
• Zuzum (Züzum): A deity with specific local significance.
• Disani (Disani): A mountain deity, known in Kalasha religion as Dizane, associated with local traditions and natural elements.
• Kshumai (Kshumai): A lesser-known deity in Nuristani pantheon.
• Kime (Kime): Another deity with specific regional importance.
• Yush (Yush): A deity associated with protection and nature.

In Sikhism

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded in the 15th century in the Punjab region of Pakistan by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. The core belief of Sikhism is in the oneness of God, who is beyond human understanding and transcends all forms and attributes. The religion was shaped by the teachings of ten successive Sikh Gurus, who are highly revered but not considered deities. In Sikhism, God is singular and does not take on human form.

Ik Onkār (ੴ), a Sikh symbol meaning "There is only one God". It is a central tenet of Sikh religious philosophy.

• Waheguru (ਵਾਹਿਗੁਰੂ, vāhigurū): The term for God in Sikhism, meaning "Wonderful Lord" or "Great Guru". Waheguru is the singular, all-encompassing, and formless God who is the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the universe. Waheguru is beyond human comprehension and is the focus of Sikh devotion and meditation.

Related pages

• Religions of Pakistan
• Ancient Pakistan
• List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries