List of wars involving the United States

This is a list of wars involving the United States of America.^[1]

USA defeat

USA victory

Another result (e.g. a treaty or peace without a clear result, status quo ante bellum, result of civil or internal conflict, result unknown or indecisive)

Ongoing conflict

18th-century wars

Conflict	Allies	Belligerent	Result for the United States and its Allies	Presidents of the United States
American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) Location: Eastern North America, Southern North America, Gibraltar, India, Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic The Battle of Long Island, August 27, 1776	United States Kingdom of France Canadian Auxiliaries Spanish Empire Iroquois File:Bandera Oneida.PNG Oneida Tuscarora Watauga Association Catawba Lenape Choctaw Dutch Republic Mysore	Great Britain Loyalists German Auxiliaries Iroquois Onondaga Mohawk Cayuga Seneca Cherokee	US-allied victory Treaty of Paris (1783) Britain recognizes the independence of the United States of America and the Thirteen Colonies.	President of the Continental Congress in American Revolutionary War: John Hancock Henry Laurens John Jay Samuel Huntington Thomas McKean John Hanson Elias Boudinot Thomas Mifflin Richard Henry Lee John Hancock Nathaniel Gorham Arthur St. Clair Cyrus Griffin
Cherokee–American wars (1776–1795) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Old Southwest Abduction of Daniel Boone's daughter by the Cherokee	United States Choctaw	Cherokee	US-allied victory	President of the Continental Congress in Cherokee –American wars: John Hancock Henry Laurens John Jay Samuel Huntington Thomas McKean John Hanson Elias Boudinot Thomas Mifflin Richard Henry Lee John Hancock Nathaniel Gorham Arthur St. Clair Cyrus Griffin Presidents of the United States: George Washington
Northwest Indian War (1785–1793) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Northwest Territory The Battle of Fallen Timbers	United States Chickasaw Choctaw	Western Confederacy List Council of Three Fires Iroquois Confederacy Seven Nations of Canada Wabash Confederacy (Wea, Piankashaw, and others) Illini Confederacy Wyandot Mississaugas Menominee Shawnee Lenape Miami Kickapoo Kaskaskia Chickamauga Cherokee (or "Lower Cherokee") Upper Muscogee Great Britain British North America	US-allied victory Treaty of Greenville (1795) American occupation of the Northwest Territory	George Washington
Quasi-War (1798–1800) Location: Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean USS Constellation vs. L'Insurgente	United States Co-belligerent: Great Britain	French Republic Guadeloupe	Convention of 1800 End of French attacks on American shipping	John Adams

19th-century wars

Conflict	Allies	Belligerent	Result for the United States and its Allies	Presidents of the United States
First Barbary War (1801–1805) Part of the Barbary Wars Location: Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Tripoli Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon at Derna, April 1805	United States^[2] Sweden^[2] Kingdom of Sicily^[2] Malta Protectorate^[2] Kingdom of Portugal^[2] Sultanate of Morocco^[2]	Ottoman Tripolitania^[3] Sultanate of Morocco^[3]	US-allied victory	Thomas Jefferson
Tecumseh's War (1810–1813) Part of the American Indian Wars and the War of 1812 Location: Northwest River Ohio The Battle of Tippecanoe	United States	Tecumseh's Confederacy List Shawnee Red Sticks Ojibway Chickamauga Meskwaki Iroquois Miami Mingo Odawa Kickapoo Lenape Mascouten Potawatomi Sauk Wyandot	US victory	James Madison
War of 1812 (1812–1815) Location: Eastern and Central North America General Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking Highlanders, by painter Edward Percy Moran in 1910.	United States Choctaw Nation Cherokee Nation Creek Allies	United Kingdom British North America The Canadas Tecumseh's Confederacy List Shawnee Red Sticks Ojibway Chickamauga Meskwaki Iroquois Miami Mingo Odawa Kickapoo Lenape Mascouten Potawatomi Sauk Wyandot Spain (1814)	Inconclusive/Other Result Treaty of Ghent Military stalemate; both sides' invasion attempts repulsed Status quo ante bellum Defeat of Tecumseh's Confederacy Burning of Washington including the White House and the Capitol
Creek War (1813–1814) Part of the American Indian Wars and the War of 1812 Location: Southern United States The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, 1814	United States Lower Creeks Cherokee Nation Choctaw Nation	Red Stick Creek	US-allied victory Treaty of Fort Jackson
Second Barbary War (1815) Part of the Barbary Wars Location: Mediterranean Sea and the Barbary States Decatur's squadron off Algiers	United States	Deylik of Algiers	US victory
First Seminole War (1817–1818) Part of the Seminole Wars and the American Indian Wars Location: Pensacola, Spanish Florida Barracks and tents at Fort Brooke near Tampa Bay	United States	Seminole Spanish Florida	US victory Spain cedes Spanish Florida to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819	James Monroe
Arikara War (1823) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Missouri River An Arikara warrior	United States Sioux	Arikara	Inconclusive/Other Result White Peace treaty agreed by US Col Leavenworth^[4]	James Monroe
Winnebago War (1827) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Illinois and Michigan Territory	United States Choctaw Nation	Prairie La Crosse Ho-Chunks with a few allies	US-allied victory Ho-Chunks cede lead mining region to the United States	John Quincy Adams
Black Hawk War (1832) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Illinois and Michigan Territory Native women and children fleeing the Battle of Bad Axe	United States Ho-Chunk Menominee Dakota Potawatomi	Black Hawk's British Band Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi allies	US-allied victory End of Native armed resistance to U.S. expansion in the Old Northwest Black Hawk Purchase (1832) The United States bought Potawatomi land in the Treaty of Tippecanoe (1832) The United States bought the rest of Potawatomi land west of the Mississippi River in the Treaty of Chicago (1833)	Andrew Jackson
Texas Revolution (1835–1836) Location: Texas Fall of the Alamo	Republic of Texas United States Out of the Texan soldiers serving from January through March 1836, 78% had arrived from the United States after October 2, 1835.^{[Note 1]}^[5]	Mexican Republic	Texan victory The Republic of Texas gains its independence. Texas is annexed into the United States in 1845.	Martin Van Buren
Second Seminole War (1835–1842) Part of the Seminole Wars and the American Indian Wars Location: Florida, United States U.S. Marines search for Seminoles in the Everglades	United States	Seminole	US victory About 3,800 Seminoles transported to the Indian Territory About 300 remain in Everglades	Martin Van Buren (March 4, 1837 – March 4, 1841) William Henry Harrison(March 4, 1841 – April 4, 1841) John Tyler (April 4, 1841 –March 4, 1845)
Aroostook War (1838–1839) Location: Maine–New Brunswick border Map showing the boundary claims and final border	United States	United Kingdom British America	Inconclusive/Other Result Webster–Ashburton Treaty	Martin Van Buren
Mexican–American War (1846–1848) Location: Texas, New Mexico, California and Mexico 2nd Dragoons charge the enemy at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, 1846	United States California Republic	Mexico	US-allied victory Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Mexican Cession Mexican recognition of US sovereignty over Texas and California (among other territories)	James K. Polk
Cayuse War (1847–1855) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Oregon The Whitman Massacre.	United States	Cayuse	US victory Cayuse reduced in numbers and forced to cede most of their lands	James K. Polk (March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849) Zachary Taylor (March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850) Millard Fillmore (July 9, 1850 – March 4, 1853) Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857)
Apache Wars (1849–1924) Part of the Texas–Indian wars and the American Indian Wars Location: Southwestern United States U.S. Cavalry dash for cover while fighting Apaches, by F. Remington	United States	Apache Ute Yavapai	US victory Apaches moved to reservations	James K. Polk (March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1849) Zachary Taylor (March 4, 1849 – July 9, 1850) Millard Fillmore (July 9, 1850 – March 4, 1853) Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857) James Buchanan (March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861) Abraham Lincoln (March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865) Andrew Johnson (April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869) Ulysses S. Grant (March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877) Rutherford B. Hayes (March 4, 1877 – March 4, 1881) James A. Garfield (March 4, 1881 – September 19, 1881) Chester A. Arthur (September 19, 1881 – March 4, 1885) Grover Cleveland (March 4, 1885 – March 4, 1889) Benjamin Harrison (March 4, 1889 – March 4, 1893) Grover Cleveland (March 4, 1893 – March 4, 1897) William McKinley (March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901) Theodore Roosevelt (September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909) William Howard Taft (March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913) Woodrow Wilson (March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921) Warren G. Harding (March 4, 1921 – August 2, 1923) Calvin Coolidge (August 2, 1923 – March 4, 1929)
Bleeding Kansas (1854–1861) Location: Kansas and Missouri Sacking of Lawrence in 1856	Anti-slavery settlers (Free-Staters)	Pro-slavery settlers (Border Ruffians)	Free-Stater victory. Kansas admitted as a free state on January 29, 1861.	Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857) James Buchanan (March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861)
Puget Sound War (1855–1856) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Washington	United States Snoqualmie	Nisqually Muckleshoot Puyallup Klickitat Haida Tlingit	US victory	Franklin Pierce
Rogue River Wars (1855–1856) Location: Rogue Valley	United States	Rogue River people	US victory Indians relocated to Siletz, Grand Ronde and Coast Reservations	Franklin Pierce
Third Seminole War (1855–1858) Part of the Seminole Wars and the American Indian Wars Location: Pensacola, Florida	United States	Seminole	US victory By late 1850s, most Seminoles forced to leave their land; a few hundred remain deep in the Everglades on land unwanted by white settlers	Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857) James Buchanan (March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861)
Yakima War (1855–1858) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Washington Territory Seattleites evacuate to the town blockhouse as USS Decatur opens fire on advancing tribal forces.	United States Snoqualmie	Yakama Walla Walla tribe Umatilla tribe Nez Perce tribe Cayuse tribe	US victory	Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857) James Buchanan (March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861)
Second Opium War (1856–1859) Part of the Opium Wars Location: China Palikao's bridge, on the evening of the battle, by Émile Bayard	British Empire French Empire United States	China	US victory Treaties of Tientsin Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island ceded to the United Kingdom as part of British Hong Kong	Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857) James Buchanan (March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861)
Utah War (1857–1858) Part of the Mormon wars Location: Utah Territory and Wyoming	United States	Deseret/Utah Mormons (Nauvoo Legion)	Inconclusive/Other Result Solved through negotiation Brigham Young replaced as governor of the territory Full amnesty for charges to the citizens of Utah Territory by President James Buchanan. This was given in exchange that they accept American Federal authority	Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857) James Buchanan (March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861)
Navajo Wars (1858–1866) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: New Mexico Fort Defiance	United States	Navajo Nation	US victory Long Walk of the Navajo Navajos moved to reservations	Franklin Pierce (March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857) James Buchanan (March 4, 1857 – March 4, 1861) Abraham Lincoln (March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865)
Pig War (1859) Location: San Juan Islands Proposed boundaries: Through Haro Strait, favored by the US Through Rosario Strait, favored by Britain Through San Juan Channel, compromise proposal The lines are as shown on maps of the time. The modern boundary follows straight line segments and roughly follows the blue line. The modern eastern boundary of San Juan County roughly follows the red line.	United States Washington Territory	United Kingdom Colony of Vancouver Island	Inconclusive Treaty of Washington Mostly a bloodless war – San Juan Islands awarded to the United States following third-party arbitration	James Buchanan
John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859) Part of pre-Civil War conflicts Location: West Virginia Harper's Weekly illustration of U.S. Marines attacking John Brown's "Fort" Teresa Baine	United States	Abolitionist Insurgents	US victory	James Buchanan
First and Second Cortina War (1859–1861) Location: Texas and Mexico	United States Confederate States Mexico	Cortinista bandits	US-allied victory	James Buchanan
Paiute War (1860) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Pyramid Lake, Nevada	United States	Paiute Shoshone Bannock	US victory	James Buchanan
American Civil War (1861–1865) Location: Southern United States, Indian Territory, Northeastern United States, Western United States, Atlantic Ocean The Battle of Antietam, by Kurz & Allison.	United States Indian Home Guard Seminole Nation (Western) (most)^[6] Muskogee Nation (part)^[7]	Confederate States Cherokee Nation Choctaw Nation Catawba Chickasaw Nation (part) Muskogee Nation (part) Seminole Nation (Florida) Seminole Nation (Western) (part) Comanche Nation (part)	US victory Dissolution of the Confederate States U.S. territorial integrity preserved Beginning of the Reconstruction Era U.S. government gets further control over land and railroad rights in the Indian Territory.	Abraham Lincoln
Yavapai Wars (1861–1875) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Arizona Rescue of Lt. Charles King	United States	Yavapai Apache Yuma Mohave	US victory	Abraham Lincoln (March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865) Andrew Johnson (April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869) Ulysses S. Grant (March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877)
Dakota War of 1862 (1862) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Minnesota and Dakota The Siege of New Ulm, Minnesota on August 19, 1862	United States	Dakota Sioux	US victory	Abraham Lincoln
Colorado War (1863–1865) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Colorado, Wyoming, and Nebraska	United States	Cheyenne Arapaho Sioux	Inconclusive/Other Result Military and congressional hearings against John Chivington	Abraham Lincoln
Snake War (1864–1868) Part of the American Indian Wars Locations: Oregon, Nevada, California, and Idaho	United States	Paiute Bannock Shoshone	US victory	Abraham Lincoln (March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865) Andrew Johnson (April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869)
Powder River War (1865) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Powder River State	United States	Sioux Cheyenne Arapaho	Inconclusive	Andrew Johnson
Red Cloud's War (1866–1868) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Powder River State The Fetterman Massacre	United States Crow Nation	Lakota Cheyenne Arapaho	Lakota-allied victory Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) Legal control of Powder River Country ceded to Native Americans Creation of the Great Sioux Reservation (including the Black Hills)	Andrew Johnson
Comanche Campaign (1867–1875) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Western United States Battle of Beecher Island. One soldier and three horses have fallen, while others continue to wage the battle.	United States	Cheyenne Arapaho Comanche Kiowa	US victory	Andrew Johnson (April 15, 1865 – March 4, 1869) Ulysses S. Grant (March 4, 1869 – March 4, 1877)
United States expedition to Korea (1871) Location: Ganghwa Island The captured Sujagi aboard USS Colorado in June 1871	United States	Joseon dynasty	Inconclusive/Other Result American military victory American diplomatic failure Withdrawal of American forces Korea retains isolationist policies Eventual signing of the United States–Korea Treaty of 1882	Ulysses S. Grant
Modoc War (1872–1873) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: California and Oregon Engraving of soldiers recovering the bodies of the slain May 3, 1873.	United States	Modoc	US victory
Red River War (1874–1875) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Texas	United States	Cheyenne Arapaho Comanche Kiowa	US victory End to the Texas-Indian Wars
Las Cuevas War (1875) Location: Texas and Mexico Texan soldiers.	United States	Mexican bandits	US victory Cattle returned to Texas
Great Sioux War of 1876 (1876–1877) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Montana, Dakota and Wyoming Custer's last stand at Little Bighorn.	United States	Lakota Dakota Sioux Northern Cheyenne Arapaho	US victory Legal control of Powder River Country ceded to the United States
Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Texas and Oklahoma	United States	Comanche Apache	US victory
Nez Perce War (1877) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana Chief Joseph's band in the Battle of Bear Paw Mountain	United States	Nez Perce Palouse	US victory	Rutherford B. Hayes
Bannock War (1878) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Idaho, Oregon, and Wyoming	United States	Bannock Shoshone Paiute	US victory
Cheyenne War (1878–1879) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota and Montana	United States	Cheyenne	US victory
Sheepeater Indian War (1879) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Idaho	United States	Shoshone	US victory
Victorio's War (1879–1880) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Mexico	United States Mexico	Apache	US-allied victory
White River War (1879) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Colorado Battle of Milk Creek Canyon	United States	Ute	US victory
Crow War (1887) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Montana Crow Indians Firing into the Agency 1887	United States	Crow people	US victory	Grover Cleveland
Pine Ridge Campaign (1890–1891) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: South Dakota Mass grave for the dead Lakota after the conflict at Wounded Knee Creek.	United States	Sioux	US victory	Benjamin Harrison
Garza War (1891–1893) Location: Texas and Mexico 3rd Cavalry Troopers searching a suspected Revolutionist, 1892	Mexico United States	Garzistas	US-allied victory
Yaqui Wars (1896–1918) Part of the American Indian Wars Location: Arizona and Mexico	United States Mexico	Yaqui Pima Opata	US-allied victory	Grover Cleveland (March 4, 1893 – March 4, 1897) William McKinley (March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901) Theodore Roosevelt (September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909) William Howard Taft (March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913) Woodrow Wilson (March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921)
Second Samoan Civil War (1898–1899) Location: Samoa Samoan warriors and American servicemen during the Siege of Apia in March 1899.	Samoa United States	Mataafans German Empire	Inconclusive/Other Result Allies and Rebels compromise for peace Tripartite Convention United States acquires American Samoa United Kingdom withdraws claim in exchange for concessions in the Solomon Islands Germany gets German Samoa Mata'afa Iosefo becomes paramount chief of Samoa	William McKinley
Spanish–American War (1898) Location: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines and Guam Theodore Roosevelt and the "Rough Riders" after the Battle of San Juan Hill.	United States Cuban Revolutionaries Filipino Revolutionaries	Spain Cuba Guam Philippines Puerto Rico	US-allied victory Treaty of Paris Protectorate over Cuba Collapse of the Spanish Empire	William McKinley
Philippine–American War (1899–1902) Location: Philippines U.S. soldiers during the Battle of Manila.	1899–1902 United States Military government 1902-1906 United States Civil government	1899–1902 Philippine Republic Negros Republic Zamboanga Republic Limited Foreign Support: Empire of Japan Shishi 1902-1906 Tagalog Republic Irrenconcilables	US victory Occupation of the Philippines Establishment of the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands General Emilio Aguinaldo captured Dissolution of the First Philippine Republic	William McKinley (March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901) Theodore Roosevelt (September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909)
Moro Rebellion (1899–1913) Location: Philippines American soldiers battling against Moro fighters.	United States	Moro Remnants of the Sulu Sultanate	US victory Total annexation of the Philippine Islands	William McKinley (March 4, 1897 – September 14, 1901) Theodore Roosevelt (September 14, 1901 – March 4, 1909) William Howard Taft (March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913) Woodrow Wilson (March 4, 1913 – March 4, 1921)
Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) Location: China U.S. soldiers during the Boxer Rebellion in China.	British Empire United Kingdom Australia New Zealand British Raj Russian Empire Empire of Japan French Republic United States German Empire Kingdom of Italy Austro-Hungarian Empire China (until 1900)	Boxers China (from 1900)	US-allied victory Signing of the Boxer Protocol Provisions for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing	William McKinley
Vietnam War (1955–1975) Location: Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia U.S. Army Bell UH-1D helicopters airlift members of the 2nd Battalion, 14th Infantry Regiment from the Filhol Rubber Plantation area to a new staging area, during Operation "Wahiawa", a search and destroy mission conducted by the 25th Infantry Division, northeast of Cu Chi, South Vietnam, 1966.	North Vietnam	United States South Vietnam South Korea Philippines Thailand Australia New Zealand Khmer Republic Kingdom of Laos Brazil United Kingdom Mexico	Vietnam victory Beginning of the Third Indochina War Reunification of North Vietnam and Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam Vietnam united under Communism Start of the Boat people and Cambodian genocide	Richard Nixon

Related pages

Notes

↑ These numbers are gathered from a combination of surviving muster rolls and veteran applications for land grants. It is likely that the statistics on the Texan army size in both 1835 and 1836 underestimate the number of Tejanos who served in the army. American volunteers who returned to the U.S. without claiming land are also undercounted. Lack (1992), p. 113.

References

↑ Kelly, Martin (4 November 2020). "American Involvement in Wars From Colonial Times to the Present". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 "Tripolitan War | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 r2WPadmin. "First Barbary War". American History Central. Retrieved May 8, 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ Serial 89, 18th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document No. 1, p. 95
↑ Lack (1992), pp. 122–3.
↑ "The Indians". The Philadelphia Inquirer. November 12, 1884.
↑ "Union and Confederate Indians in the Civil War". civilwarhome.com. 2002-02-16. Archived from the original on February 13, 2021. Retrieved December 12, 2021.

Other websites

Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research (HIIK)
- Conflict Barometer – Describes recent trends in conflict development, escalations, and settlements
A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War^{[permanent dead link]}, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
Timeline of wars involving the United States, Histropedia
U.S. Periods of War and Dates of Recent Conflicts, Congressional Research Service

[5] These numbers are gathered from a combination of surviving muster rolls and veteran applications for land grants. It is likely that the statistics on the Texan army size in both 1835 and 1836 underestimate the number of Tejanos who served in the army. American volunteers who returned to the U.S. without claiming land are also undercounted. Lack (1992), p. 113.

[1] Kelly, Martin (4 November 2020). "American Involvement in Wars From Colonial Times to the Present". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 31 January 2022.

[:2-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 ^2.3 ^2.4 ^2.5 "Tripolitan War | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved May 8, 2019.

[:3-3] 3.0 ^3.1 r2WPadmin. "First Barbary War". American History Central. Retrieved May 8, 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[4] Serial 89, 18th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document No. 1, p. 95

[lack122and3-6] Lack (1992), pp. 122–3.

[inq1884-7] "The Indians". The Philadelphia Inquirer. November 12, 1884.

[8] "Union and Confederate Indians in the Civil War". civilwarhome.com. 2002-02-16. Archived from the original on February 13, 2021. Retrieved December 12, 2021.

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